THE 



FIRE PROTECTION- 



OF 



Hospitals for the Insane 



By L. H. PRINCE, M. D. 

Resident Physician "Bellevue Place," Batavia, III.; formerly 

Assistant Physician Illinois Eastern Hospital 

for Insane, Kankakee. 




^^ 



CHICAGO: 

C. H. BLAKELY & CO. 
1891. 






Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1891, 

By L. H. PRINCE, M. D., 

in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



PREFACE. 



This little manual is offered with the hope that it may 
prove of assistance to those who are interested in the proper 
fire-protection of Hospitals for the Insane. While much that 
is contained in its pages should be of interest to architects, 
builders, managers, and trustees, the work is especially in- 
tended for the use of Superintendents, and other officers, 
attendants, and employes in general of hospitals and asylums 
— those who are more directly concerned in the prevention 
and extinguishment of fire. 

The author, regretting the incompleteness of the work in 
many respects, trusts that it may at least suggest what is nec- 
essary to be done in order that the dangers from fire in Hos- 
pitals for the Insane and other public institutions may be 
greatly lessened. 

While especially adapted for the use of Hospitals for the 
Insane, the suggestions herein offered may be easily modified 
to suit the requirements of all large public institutions, such 
as Asylums for the Deaf and Dumb, the Blind, the Idiotic 
and Feeble-Minded ; Orphan Asylums ; Sailors' and Soldiers' 
Homes ; City Hospitals ; Industrial Schools ; Almshouses ; 
Infirmaries ; Reformatories ; Penitentiaries, etc. 

L. H. P. 

Batavia, III., July i, 1891. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

General Considerations — Summary of Serious Fires in American Hos- 
pitals — Statutory Provisions — Dependence upon Neighboring 
Protection — Objections to Stand-Pipe System — Propositions. . . 9 



CHAPTER II. 

THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

Construction of Buildings: Faulty Construction; Fire-proof Construc- 
tion; Slow-burning Construction; Exits; Fire-Escapes; Fire 
Doors; Attics and Basements; Laundries and Drying Rooms; 
Elevators and Dumb- Waiter Shafts; Foul-Air Flues and Dust 
Chutes — Heating of Buildings: Furnace Heating; Steam Heat- 
ing; Stoves; Hot- Air Flues; Ashes — Lighting of Buildings: 
Kerosene-Oil Lighting; Gasolene-Gas Lighting; Illuminating- 
Gas Lighting; Matches; Candles; Electric Lighting — Kerosene 
Oil and Gas Stoves — Oiled Rags, Waste, etc. — Coal — Smoking 
— Work Shops — Night Watches — Instructions to Employes .... 15 



CHAPTER III. 

FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 

Water Supply — Water Tanks — Fire Pumps — Water Mains — Fire Hy- 
drants — Fire Pails — Bath Tubs — Hand Grenades — Portable 
Chemical Fire Extinguishers: The "Babcock"; the "Cham- 
pion" — Stationary Chemical Engines — Portable Chemical En- 
gines — Stand Pipes — Automatic Sprinklers — Fire Hose — Hose 
Cart and Equipment — Ladder Truck and Equipment — The 
Hose House — Hose Tower 36 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE FIRE ALARM. 

Importance of a Reliable System — Fire Bell or Fire Whistle — Open 
and Closed Electric Circuits — The Gamewell Rapid System: 
Boxes or Stations; Keys; the Indicator; the Circuit — Thermo- 
stat Alarm System = 53 

CHAPTER V. 

THE FIRE BRIGADE. 

Plan of Organization — Chief Marshal — Assistant Marshals — Engin- 
eers — Electrician — Hose Companies: Duties of Captain; of 
Lieutenant or Pipeman; of Hydrant-Man; of Linemen — Hook 
and Ladder Company — Chemical Company — At the Farm — 
Life-Saving Corps — Hose-House Janitor — Fire Hats, Rubber 
Coats, Boots, etc. — " Bunkers." 59 

CHAPTER VI. 

DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

Importance of Drill — Contests — "Smudge" Fires — False Alarms — 
Obedience to Orders — Vocabulary — The Drills — Hose Com- 
pany Drills: General Considerations; Laying of Hose; Making 
and Breaking Connections ; the Pipe and Nozzle ; Taking Up ; 
the Care of Hose — Hose Drills Nos. I. to VIII. — Ladder Com- 
pany Drills : General Considerations; Raising and Lowering 
Ladders; Use of Axes and Poles; Ladder Drills Nos. I. to III. — 
Chemical Company Drills: General Considerations; Charging 
and Re-charging of Extinguishers; Chemical Drills Nos. I. to IV. 

— General Drills : General Considerations; General Drills Nos. 
I. to IV. — Exhibition Drills and Contests; Exhibition Drill — 
Hose Contests Nos. I. to III. — Ladder Company Trials of Speed 
Nos. I. and II. ... ■ 73 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE FIGHTING OF FIRE. 

Remarks — Obedience to Orders — Coolness and Presence of Mind — 
Giving the Alarm — Responding to Alarm — At the Hose-House 

— Smoke and Heat — Retreat — Incipient Fires — Smouldering 
Fires — Fires in Coal Piles — Special Suggestions : Hose Com- 
panies ; Chemical Companies ; Life-Saving Corps 109 



" Bitter experience has demonstrated, in innumerable instances, in this 
and other countries, the horrors that await hospitals for the insane whose 
authorities have been short-sighted — one might even say inhumane — 
enough not to provide adequate protection against the emergency of fire. 
Above all things, the system should be thorough and capable of standing 
the test of immediate application at a moment's notice." — Dr. G. Alder 
Blumer, Utica, N. Y. 

" There is only one answer possible to the question, ' Is it desirable that 
hospitals for the insane be provided with a thorough system of fire-protec- 
tion?' It is a self-evident proposition to which the greatest possible 
emphasis has been given by the series of appalling calamities from fires in 
insane asylums occurring year after year in all parts of the land, and I trust 
the time will come when a full equipment for fire-protection will be regarded 
as indispensable to every institution for the insane, and the necessary 
provision will be made to establish it in the same manner that provision is 
made for the ordinary expenses of each institution." — Dr. R. S. Dewey, 
Kankakee, III. 

" There is, after all is said and done, some propriety in elaborate and 
long-continued, and, no doubt, irksome precautions against dangers that 
may never come. The daily and nightly exercise of attendants with fire- 
hose and extinguishers, and of patients with the fire-escapes, has been 
burdensome and complained of, and even ridiculed, and for several hundred 
days was of no immediate or apparent service, but it stood the asylum in 
good stead on one final day of the hundreds." — Dr. A. E. McDonald, in 
Annual Report for 1883, New York City Asylum for Insane, Ward 's Island '. 



THE 

FIRE PROTECTION OF HOSPITALS 

FOR THE INSANE. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

THE subject of fire protection of hospitals for the insane has 
never received the attention it would seem to merit. 
During the past few years, however, there has been a move in 
the right direction, which shows signs of healthful progress. 
The melancholy lessons of the past ought to be sufficient for 
all time to come. Though the burning of an asylum, accom- 
panied by the loss of many lives, usually stimulates hospital 
authorities to greater efforts in providing for their institutions 
better protection against fire, in many instances the effect is 
but temporary, and after a few thousand dollars' worth of appa- 
ratus is placed in the institution and a few rules have been 
framed, setting forth what is to be done in case of fire, interest 
in the matter rapidly wanes, and soon a comfortable sense of 
security settles upon the members of the household, from 
which nothing less than another conflagration can possibly 
arouse them. 

The danger of fire is ever present, and the fact that an 
institution has escaped for many years is no guaranty of safety 
for the future. It is too often with hospitals for the insane as 
it is with towns and villages: little or no thought is taken of 



io INTRODUCTORY. 

the possibility of fire until the place is wholly or partly 
destroyed. 

Following is a partial list of the more serious fires occurring 
in American institutions for the insane since the year 1850. A 
record of 241 lives lost by fire, the greater number during the 
past ten years, is in itself a sufficient argument for the better 
protection of our institutions. 

SUMMARY OF THE MORE SERIOUS FIRES IN AMERICAN 

ASYLUMS. 

December 3, 1850, night. Maine Insane Hospital. Origin — hot-air chamber. 

Twenty-eight lives lost. 
July 14, 1857, 7 a. m. New York State Asylum, Utica. Origin — patient 
starting fire in large foul-air flue in attic cupola of front central 
building. Loss, $69,000. Two lives lost. 
July 18, 1857. New York State Asylum, Utica, barn. Origin — fire set by 
patient. 

i860. Kentucky Western Lunatic Asylum. Loss, $200,000. One life 

lost. 

1862. Vermont Asylum, Brattleboro. Origin — furnace. Loss, 

$40,000. Four lives lost. 

September 25, 1872, 1 :i5 p. m. Northern Ohio Asylum, Cleveland. Origin — 
supposed carelessness of mechanics ; cupola of tower of Administration 
building. Water tanks in tower fell just as streams were turned upon 
fire. The falling of the tanks not only killed five persons, but rend- 
ered useless the entire water supply system by breaking pipes, pumps, 
etc., placed in basement. Loss of life, five. 

1872. Nebraska Hospital. Several lives lost. 

February 13, 1877, 7 a.m. Vermont Asylum, Brattleboro. /Stable. Origin — 
burning out of chimney. Loss, $25,000. 

October 15, 1879. Missouri State Lunatic Asylum No. 1., St. Joseph. Origin — 
drying room. Loss, $89,000. 

March 8, 1880. Kansas State Hospital, Ossawatomie. Administrative 
building completely destroyed. Loss, $40,000. 

November 15, 1880, 7 p. m. Minnesota State Hospital, St. Peter, male wing. 
Origin — in basement, possibly near steam coils. " On account of s)noke, 
the internal means of protection could not be used." Loss, $100,000. 
Twenty-four lives lost. 



INTRODUCTORY. u 

April 19, 1881, 1 a. m. Illinois Southern Hospital, Anna. Origin— in attic, 

from spontaneous combustion. Loss, $100,000. One life lost. 
December 21, 1883, 10:30 a. m. New York City Asylum, Ward's Island. 
Origin — in attic of new east wing, from carelessness of workmen. 
Loss, $25,000. 
January 18, 1885, midnight. Illinois Eastern Hospital, Kankakee. Origin — 
floor over furnace in male infirmary cottage. Loss, $25,000. Seven- 
teen lives lost. 
February 12, 1885, 8 p. m. Philadelphia Almshouse, Insane department. 

Origin — in drying room under third floor. Twenty lives lost. 
February — , 18S5. Indiana Hospital, Indianapolis. " From December, 1S84, 
to February, 1885, we had three fires, and in each case the origin was 
from a steam pipe in contact with combustible matter. Cost to State, 
$60,000." From Superintendent's report. 
June 7, 1885, 10 p. m. Virginia State Hospital, Williamsburg. Origin — 
right wing of center building, probably from electric light wires. 
Loss, $140,000. Two lives lost. 
January 2, 1886, afternoon. Essex County Asylum, Newark, N. J. Origin — 
in chute in which was placed a steam coil. Spontaneous combustion. 
Loss, $16,000. 

1887. Oak Lawn Retreat (private), Jacksonville, 111. Origin — in attic 

from defective hot-air flue. Loss, $20,000. 
August 4, 1887. Wisconsin State Hospital, Mendota, stable. 
October 12, 1887. Northern Ohio Asylum, Cleveland. Origin — in drying 
room. Rear buildings, including Amusement Hall, destroyed. Eight 
lives lost. 
December 2, 18S7. London, Ontario, Can., Hospital. Origin — in drying 

room. Kitchen and laundry destroyed. 
March 4, 1889. Eastern Michigan Asylum, laundry and carpenter shop. 

Origin — from carelessness of employe. 
May 6, 1890, m. St. Jean de Dieu Hospital, Longue Point, Quebec, Canada. 
Loss, $700,000. Loss of life estimated at about one hundred, possibly 
more. 
May 7, 1890 (night). Chenango County House (Insane Department), Pres- 
ton, N. Y. Origin — supposed to have originated from smouldering 
fire of the afternoon, a female patient having lost her life by placing 
a lighted pipe in her pocket. There was no night watch. Thirteen 
lives lost. 



12 INTRODUCTORY. 

March 13, 1891, 10:15 p. m. West wing Tennessee Central Hospital, Nash- 
ville. Origin — unknown. Loss, $50,000. Eight lives lost. 

Year. Loss of Life. 
1850 28 

1857 2 

i860 1 

1862 4 

1872 12 

1880 24 

1881 1 

1885 ' 39 

1887 8 

1890 113 

1891 9 

Total 241 

As hospitals for the insane increase in number and size, 
the necessity for thorough and systematic fire protection 
becomes more and more urgent. Simply providing an institu- 
tion with fire-extinguishing apparatus is not adequate protec- 
tion as many are inclined to believe. A thorough system of 
fire protection must include measures for the prevention of fire, 
a rapid method of reporting fire when it occurs, reliable appli- 
ances for extinguishing fire, and a body of well-drilled men, 
ready and willing, at a moment's notice, to battle against it. 
The system, to be reliable, must be sound in all its parts. A 
flaw in any part will surely weaken the whole. 

The fire protection of a hospital should be considered one 
of the departments of the institution, and it ought to receive as 
careful attention in regard to the details of its management as 
do other departments. 

It would be well, for the sake of economy, if for no other 
reason, for each State to make ample provision, by legal enact- 
ment, for the protection from fire of its public buildings. It 
should be required that in the construction, equipment, and 
management of any public institution certain specified precau- 
tions shall be taken looking to the prevention of fire; that each 



INTRODUCTORY. 13 

institution shall be provided with a sufficient number of fire- 
escapes to allow of the ready escape, in case of fire, of all those 
confined in the burning building; that there shall be at the 
institution a sufficient amount of first-class fire-extinguishing 
apparatus, and that there shall be some system of drill whereby 
the apparatus may be quickly and intelligently used when 
needed. 

A hospital situated within a city having an efficient fire 
department should not depend for protection entirely upon the 
city department. It should have its own private fire-fighting 
apparatus, and its own well-drilled brigade; it should have its 
own system of fire-alarm, as well as direct electric communica- 
tion with the city department. There need not be as extensive 
an equipment nor as elaborate an organization as would be 
necessary for the same institution if situated in the country; 
nevertheless, no matter how favorably located in this respect, 
there ought to be a system of protection as thoroughly organized 
in every particular as though it depended entirely upon its own 
efforts for fighting fire. There is the same necessity for contin- 
uous effort at preventing fire as exists in any other hospital, 
and the same need of discovering and of fighting fire in its 
incipiency. 

No reliance can be placed upon an indoor or stand-pipe 
system of fire protection. There are several objections to such 
a system being used, either alone or as an auxiliary to an outside 
system, the more important objections being: 1. The location 
of the fire or the density of the smoke may be such as to make 
the reel of hose or the stand-pipe inaccessible. 2. The progress 
of the fire, or the amount of smoke or heat may at any mo- 
ment make it necessary for those using the hose to change 
their position or to retire, and to do so they must abandon their 
means for fighting the fire, and this not necessarily at a late 
stage. 3. By the burning of the hose at any point between 
the nozzle and its connection with the stand-pipe ; by the nee- 



14 INTRODUCTORY. 

essary abandonment of the hose while the stream is still on; or 
by the breaking or tearing down of the stand-pipe by a falling 
wall there would be such a serious enfeebling of the pressure 
as to make almost valueless other streams. 4. In order that 
all of the many wards of a large institution be supplied with 
sufficient hose to cover every point, a very large amount would 
be necessary. In such case a cheap grade of hose is liable to 
be used, in preference to hose of good quality. Even if the 
hose be of good quality it will suffer in time from non-use, as 
it cannot be used for drill as frequently as would be necessary, 
and if wet at any time it could not be dried as it should be. 

Inside protection should consist of portable appliances 
only, such as fire-pails and chemical extinguishers, to be used 
for the purpose of holding in check or of extinguishing, if 
possible, incipient fires, pending the arrival of the brigade. 

The suggestions offered in the succeeding chapters are 
based upon the following propositions : 

1. Fires in hospitals for the insane, as elsewhere, are in 
most instances preventable. 

2. The rapid spread of fire is generally due to the faulty 
construction of buildings. 

3. The appliances to be depended upon for extinguishing 
fire should be easily accessible, but entirely independent of the 
buildings to be protected. 

4. A reliable and rapid method of giving an alarm is essen- 
tial to a perfect system of fire protection. 

5. No system of fire protection is complete that does not 
include a thoroughly organized and well-drilled fire brigade. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

IT is far easier to prevent fire than to master it. Many fires 
occurring in public institutions have been preventable, and, 
had the proper precautions been taken, the fire record would 
present a far different aspect than it now does. It seems strange 
that well-known facts in regard to danger from fire are so often 
entirely disregarded, or very meagerly entertained, in the 
matter of the construction of buildings in which are to be 
confined scores of helpless individuals. Mr. Edward Atkinson, 
President of the Boston Manufacturers' Insurance Company, 
says : " In the companies with which I am connected we can 
afford to insure cotton factories, woolen mills, paper mills and 
other classes of risks of like kind; but we cannot afford to 
insure the city warehouses in which the goods made in these 
factories are distributed; nor the schoolhouses in which the 
children are educated; nor the hospital to which the operatives 
are sent when ill; nor the churches where they customarily 
attend public worship — because they are as a rule too hazardous 
in their method of construction." 

Surely hospitals for the insane should be as carefully pro- 
tected from the dangers of fires as are mills. 

The pecuniary loss is often greater at one fire than would 
have been the amount necessary for making the whole institu- 
tion comparatively free from danger. Nor is a large expendi- 
ture of money necessary in order that a building may be made 
reasonably safe. At least it may be so constructed that fire 



16 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

will spread but slowly, thus giving those who are confined 
within its walls a better chance for escape, and the firemen a 
better opportunity for saving life and property. The expense 
of such construction need be but little more than the cost of 
building fire-traps. The prevention of fire should be very 
seriously considered in the construction of buildings, in the 
heating and lighting of the same, and in the management of 
the institution as a whole. Almost, if not quite, as much care 
should be observed in regard to the apparently little dangers 
as to the greater ones, for conflagrations are generally traceable 
to insignificant beginnings. Whatever is attempted with the 
object in view of preventing fire, in order that it be effectual, 
must be done in a most thorough and painstaking manner. 

CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 

Faulty Construction. — The rapid spread of fire in a 
building, from floor to floor, often directly from cellar to roof, 
is almost always due to faulty construction, especially of its 
interior, for many times, where great pains and expense are 
expended on solid and comparatively indestructible outside 
walls, the interior construction is decidedly unsafe, no attention 
whatever being paid to the danger of the rapid spread of fire 
starting within. Referring to defective and unsafe building 
construction, Mr. Gerhard* says: 

"How are such structures usually erected and built? Their interior is 
of a highly inflammable character, consisting of all kinds of timber, studs, 
floor beams, floor boards, rafters, furring and lathing, the latter being narrow 
strips of wood, to which a thin skin of plaster is made to adhere. The 
inside of partitions, and the spaces between ceiling joists remain hollow, 
and form a large number of wooden flues, which constitute excellent con- 
cealed passages, not only for rats, mice, foul air and bad odors, but also for 
smoke and flames. By means of these thousand hidden flues a fire is spread 
unobserved, with astounding celerity, from the basement of a house to its 
attic, while it is, at the same time, most difficult to reach the flames with 

* The Prevention of Fire: Wm. Paul Gerhard, C. E. 



CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 17 

water. The foregoing description refers not only to wooden buildings, but 
is equally true of brick or stone houses. As usually constructed, they are 
no better, no safer than frame structures. It is true, stone and brick afford 
protection against flames from the outside, but stone or brick walls form 
merely the outer shell, being lined on the inside with a network of inflam- 
mable studding, furring and lathing. A fire, once started inside the build- 
ing, will soon cause its rapid destruction." 

If hospitals for the insane were built not more than two 
stories in height; if the building of them was strictly upon 
the principle of slow-burning construction; and if for the 
fast-burning wood now so generally used for interior work 
and roofs could be substituted some such fire-resisting wood 
as the California redwood,* the fire risk would be reduced 
to a very low point. 

Fire-Proof Construction. — After mentioning some of 
the objections to materials generally used in so-called fire- 
proof construction, Mr. Gerhard says: 

" Experience teaches that hard-burnt bricks, the so-called fire-bricks 
and terra cotta, will resist the destructive action of the flames better than 
iron or wood. Brick or terra-cotta fronts are better than iron or stone 
fronts. Iron or wood used in the construction of buildings, in the shape of 
columns, girders or beams, should not be left exposed, but ought to be 
suitably protected against the heat by a non-conducting and fire-resisting 
covering of either good brick-work, sound plastering, concrete, fire-clay or 

* The writer is indebted to Dr. F. W. Hatch, Medical Director of the 
California Insane Asylum at Agnews, for the following information con- 
cerning the fire-resisting qualities of redwood: "In conversation with the 
chief of the San Jose fire department, he told me that it was an undoubted 
fact that houses built of redwood were the safest. The wood is hard to 
ignite, and when ignited is slow to burn; there is little flame and heat, and 
it is almost instantly extinguished when water is thrown upon it. It takes 
a minimum quantity of water to put a redwood fire out. The Chief took 
me to a building that had been partially consumed by fire. It was a frame 
composed of pine and redwood, and the difference in destruction of the 
two woods was marked: while the pine was burned clear through, the 
redwood was, in most cases, only charred on one side. * * * I am 
informed that after redwood has been fired and extinguished it is exceed- 
ingly difficult to re-ignite it, from the fact that the charred portion resists 
heat very strongly." 



18 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

terra cotta. Floors may thus consist of iron I beams with flat, hollow- 
tile arches, no part of the iron beams being exposed. Iron columns simi- 
larly protected, may be neatly finished, by plastering with smooth mortar, 
Keene's cement or otherwise. With all wood-work the aim should be 
to prevent the immediate access of air, so as to retain its strength and 
soundness, even during hours of exposure to heat and flames. Thus, 
wooden ceilings may be protected with porous terra-cotta tiles, securely 
fastened to the underside of joists and covered with a coat of gypsum. 
Timber may also be more or less thoroughly protected and rendered 
uninflammable by treating it with fire-proof coatings of paint, by impreg- 
nating it with chemical solutions, or by covering it in an efficient manner 
with plaster or some other suitable, fire-resisting substitute, such as terra 
cotta. No hollow wood partition walls nor any hollow wood furrings 
should be tolerated in such a structure. Interior walls and partitions 
should be made of solid blocks of concrete masonry, or of hollow, well- 
burnt porous terra cotta tiles. The roof may be wire-netted on the inside, 
and plastered and covered on the outside with some incombustible mate- 
rial as a protection against sparks from chimneys or neighboring houses 
on fire. 

"In such a fire-proof structure, a fire once started in any apartment or 
on any of the floors, would, in all ordinary cases, merely consume the 
furniture or goods contained in the room, and then die out for want of 
fuel, without injuring the building further than possibly scorching or 
burning doors, wainscoatings, baseboards, wood casings, window sashes 
and upper floor boards, and causing a slight additional damage to the 
ceilings and plastered walls by the smoke." 

No hospital building of more than two stories in height 
should be constructed in any other manner than as nearly fire- 
proof as it is possible to make it. It is not necessary, how- 
ever, that this expensive method be adopted for two-story 
buildings or cottages in order that they may be comparatively 
safe. 

Slow-Burning Construction would probably meet all 
the requirements necessary for combining economy with safety 
in the construction of cottages and other hospital buildings, 
whether entirely detached or connected by corridors. The 
adoption of this method in the construction of hospitals would 



CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 19 

alone greatly lessen the risks from fire. " The chief principle 
of slow-burning construction," to quote Mr. Gerhard again, 
" consists in absolutely avoiding all concealed spaces, such as hollow 
wood floors, furrings or partitions, where fire can lurk or spread 
unobserved, and, if detected, could not be reached with streams 
of water." 

There are various ways of carrying out this principle, with 
which architects are familiar. The substitution of wire net- 
ting for the usual wooden laths, and the filling in of hollow 
spaces with some incombustible material, such as mineral 
wool, slag, etc., is now often done. By filling in the hollow 
spaces in floors and walls the rapid spread of fire is prevented, 
rats and mice are kept away, and the walls and floors are dead- 
ened. 

The construction of roofs should receive the same careful 
attention as do the outside walls and the interior of buildings, 
as there is much danger of the spread of fire from one build- 
ing to another if the roof-covering is of combustible material.* 

Hollow cornices of wood are very undesirable, as they 
allow of the rapid spread of fire. 

Exits. — From every ward there should be at least two 
separate and distinct means of egress aside from the outside 
fire-escapes, so that in case one way should be cut off by reason 
of fire or smoke, another would be available. 

* " For the best construction of flat roofs in the Northern States, the 
roof plank should not be less than three inches thick; in the Southern 
States it may be two and one-half inches thick. The plank should be 
grooved and spliced, and covered with tin, gravel or duck. If a pitched 
or mansard roof is adopted — which is generally unadvisable — the plank 
should be not less than two inches thick, and covered outside with shingles 
laid over three-quarters of an inch of mortar, unless slate is used on account 
of close proximity of other buildings, or some other adequate reason. If 
slates are to be used, they should also be laid over mortar, as they are 
subject to almost instant destruction when exposed to a moderate degree 
of heat, and sparks can often pass between the cracks." — C. J. H. Wood- 
bury, " Fire Protection of Mills." 



20 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

All exit-doors ought to be so arranged as to swing outward, 
in order that the dangers from a jam may be avoided. This 
rule applies to doors leading from wards, dormitories, dining- 
rooms, chapels, amusement halls and other . places where a 
number of patients are congregated; it also applies to doors 
leading to fire-escapes. Very many lives have been lost in the 
past, during fires and panics in churches and theaters, as is 
well known, owing principally to the fact that the exit-doors 
were made to swing inward. 

Staircases and Hallways require and should receive special 
attention in the matter of fire-proofing. The stairs should be 
made of the very best material, and whatever is used the under- 
side ought to be made as nearly fire-proof as possible. They 
should be of ample width, with no sharp turns, a landing being 
placed where a turn is necessary. Where the stairs fill up a 
hallway, hand-rails should be provided. 

Fire-Escapes. — The ordinary vertical or nearly vertical 
iron ladders, used so much as fire-escapes on large buildings 
in cities, should never be used for this purpose on any hospital 
building. Of course they are better than no escape at all, but 
very little better. Under the most favorable conditions it 
would be no easy task for an ordinary man in good health to 
descend from a second or third story upon one of these. How 
would it be, on a cold winter night, for frightened, insane men 
and women, with bare hands, to grasp the frosty iron rungs and 
attempt a descent? The only truly practicable fire-escape is 
one that will answer the purpose of ordinary stairs, and be as 
easy of access. There should be a platform or balcony, and a 
pair of stairs, the latter running parallel with the side of the 
building, protected by a strong railing, the whole being made of 
iron — as much as possible of gas-pipe, [ Fig. I . ] Wooden treads 
are to be preferred to iron, however, owing to the greater liability 
of the latter to become coated with ice. It is important that 



CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 



21 



there be an easy means of exit from the building to these escapes. 
The best plan, and the only feasible one, is to have a door 
opening on to the escape from each ward or domitory above 
the first floor, the door opening outwards, and controlled by the 
common ward key. The size, number, and arrangement of 




Fig. i. — Iron fire-escape and balcony fire-escape. 



escapes will necessarily depend upon the size and shape of the 
buildings upon which they are placed. In any case, this rule 
should be adopted,- — that fire-escapes should be of such construc- 
tion, and placed in such positions, as to allow of the ready escape of 
any number of persons from a building, when from any reaso?i the 
stairways are rendered i?iaccessible . 

Fire-escapes of this kind answer a useful purpose, also, in 
furnishing firemen an easier, safer, and quicker means of reach- 
ing with their hose a second or third story than do ladders 
or inside stairways. 

Properly constructed balconies of cottages may be utilized 
as fire-escapes, dormitories opening directly upon them, a pair 
of stairs leading from the second to the first floor of the 



22 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

balcony. [Fig. I.] The stairs may be hinged and weighted, 
so as to be drawn up during the day, or be made stationary. 

Fire-Doors. — It is doubtful whether fire-doors, except 
where used in connection with a fire-wall, or in fire-proof con- 
necting corridors, would to any appreciable extent prevent the 
spread of fire. The tinned wooden doors are greatly to be 
preferred to those of iron. 

In writing upon the subject of fire-doors for mills, Mr. 
Woodbury* says: 

" A dear-bought experience has shown iron to be absolutely unfit for 
such purposes. The heat of a slight fire will cause an iron door to sink by 
its own weight, while the writer has seen double ' air-space ' doors, made of 
thin corrugated iron, shrivel like the withered leaves of autumn, when the 
fire was insufficient to destroy the paint on them. The most efficient fire 
door is constructed of two thicknesses of tongued and grooved inch boards 
laid diagonally across each other, and nailed with wrought iron nails and 
driven flush, clinched on the other side. This door is then covered on side" 
and edges with sheets of tin locked together like a tin roof. The lintel 
should be tinned and securely fastened to the masonry. If a swinging door, 
the hinges should be securely bolted in, and not merely fastened with 
screws." 

Attics and Basements. — Fires having their origin in 
attics and basements usually make considerable headway before 
being discovered, owing to the fact that these places are much 
less frequented than are the main floors. No rubbish or dirt of 
any kind should be allowed to accumulate in basements, nor 
should attics be made receptacles for lumber, old furniture, 
bedding, or anything else that would make fuel. These places 
should be frequently inspected, and always be made inaccessible 
to those having no business in them. As many fires have 
occurred through the carelessness of plumbers and tinners 
working in attics, basements, and other out-of-the-way places, 
it would be well, as a matter of precaution, to follow up these 
folks with pails of water or fire extinguishers. 

* " The Fire Protection of Mills," by C. J. H. Woodbury. 






HEATING OF BUILDINGS. 23 

Laundry and Drying-Rooms. — Owing to the danger of 
fire from laundry apparatus, especially that used in the ironing 
and drying rooms, this department should be located in a sepa- 
rate building from the hospital proper. Great care should 
be taken that clothing, rags, and other combustible articles do 
not come in contact with nor accumulate about the steam pipes, 
stoves, ranges, or other apparatus used for heating and drying 
purposes. Automatic sprinklers may with advantage be placed 
in the drying and other laundry rooms, other precautions not 
being neglected, however. Special precautions are necessary 
in these places for the protection of all exposed woodwork, and 
inspection should be frequent and thorough. 

Elevator and Dumb- Waiter Shafts are often responsi- 
ble for the rapid spread of fire. Through them the flames will 
pass quickly from basement to attic, converting in a few 
moments an otherwise feeble, easily managed blaze, into a fire 
difficult or impossible to control. There should be nothing, 
throughout the whole extent of these places, for the flames to 
feed upon, the sides being constructed either of some uninflam- 
mable material, as brick or stone, or else lined with tin or 
galvanized iron. All of the doors ought to be tin-lined and 
made to fit snugly. Except when in use the openings into the 
shafts should be kept closed. 

Foul-Air Flues and Dust Chutes are a source of danger 
in the same way as are dumb-waited and elevator shafts. The 
fewer the number of openings there are between one floor and 
another the better. Where they are indispensable the danger 
from them should be borne in mind, and proper precautions 
taken to prevent accidents. 

HEATING OF BUILDINGS. 

Everything pertaining to the warming of hospitals ought to 
be given very careful attention. In this matter great care is 
necessary that none of the minor details be neglected. It is 



24 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

in the neglect of the apparently insignificant matters in con- 
nection with the putting in and management of heating appa- 
ratus that often leads to disaster. 

Furnace-Heating. — The room ox compartment in which a 
furnace is placed should be made thoroughly fire-proof — the 
floor, walls, and ceiling — whether the furnace-dome and sides 
are insulated or not. 

The furnace should be of such size that it need never be 
necessary to crowd it in order that the building may be warmed 
in severe weather. It should be constructed in the very best 
manner, and kept in good order and repair. The furnace-dome 
and sides should be incased in some heat-resisting material, 
and placed at a safe distance from combustible substances, the 
distance, of course, depending upon the amount of heat the fur- 
nace is capable of giving off, and the inflammability of the 
surroundings. Never, under any circumstances, ought an uncov- 
ered furnace be placed beneath an unprotected, combustible 
ceiling. The walls of the furnace should be of brick, of ample 
thickness, and hollow, admitting of an air-space of about four 
inches. 

Smoke-Pipes should never pass through a floor unpro- 
tected. Where entering a flue, the pipe should be at least 
twelve inches from floors, ceilings, or partitions, unless a 
metal shield is provided, in which case six inches space is 
sufficient. Where the smcfke-pipe passes through partitions 
the same precautions are necessary as for heat conductors. 
The ceiling above the pipe, unless it be fire-proof or at least 
eighteen inches away from the pipe, should be protected by a 
metal shield, not fastened to the ceiling, but separated from it 
by an air space. Tin shields fastened against wood-work are not 
as safe as generally considered. The wood often chars, tin 
being a good heat conductor. 

Cold-air Chambers may become a source of danger from 
fire, in the event of a reversal of the draft, if not properly 



HEATING OF BUILDINGS. 25 

constructed and protected. They should be made entirely of 
non-combustible material, be kept free from inflammable sub- 
stances, and the mouth or opening of the box covered with wire 
netting, to prevent the blowing in of paper, rags, etc. 

He at- Conductors ought to be made double, one larger metal 
cylinder enclosing a smaller one, a space of at least one inch 
separating the two. Where the conductor passes beneath or 
close to wood-work, there should be placed between them a 
shield of tin or galvanized iron, an air-space being left on 
either side. When passing through wooden partitions a collar 
of tin, made double, and ventilated, should encircle it, or it 
may be enclosed in masonry or brick-work. Especial care 
must be taken in the matter of fire-proofing where conductors 
pass through closets and clothes rooms, where there is but little 
change of air, and where inflammable articles are so liable to 
be thrown about them. Upright pipes in walls should be 
enclosed in brick-work or other fire-resisting material. No 
hot-air flues or conductors should pass between a combustible 
floor and ceiling. 

Hot- Air Registers should be placed in side walls, and prefer- 
ably near the ceiling, out of the reach of mischievous patients. 
The wood-work about them should be thoroughly protected by 
soapstone borders set in plaster-of-Paris or gauged mortar. A 
wire netting fastened over them, on the inner side, will prevent 
the access of dirt of any kind. Fans or valves should either be 
entirely discarded, or else made accessible to responsible per- 
sons only. Great danger arises from the confining of heat in 
hot-air pipes or conductors ,by the closing of register valves. 
The principal register of a furnace should never be closed. 

Steam-Heating. — The same precautions suggested in refer- 
ence to furnaces a?id fiirnace-rooms may be applied, wherever 
practicable, to the furnaces and furnace-rooms where steam- 
heating is used. It is better to have the boiler located in a 
separate building. 



26 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

There is a popular though erroneous belief that hot steam 
pipes and radiators are devoid of danger when in contact with 
or in close proximity to wood or other combustible material. 
Many fires have originated in this way, and the danger is not 
by any means slight, especially when the high-pressure system 
is used. 

Steam Pipes become a source of danger when they pass 
through floors and partitions where no provision has been 
made to protect the combustible surroundings. The lathing, 
when in contact with the pipes, gradually becomes charred 
through friction of the hot pipes, thus becoming more and 
more inflammable. If the pipe is unpainted, it sooner or later 
rusts, and the action of rust upon carbonized lath, under certain 
favorable conditions, produces combustion. Examples of such 
accidents are not wanting. A coating of paint will prevent 
pipes from rusting, and this should be done where pipes pass 
through floors or ceilings, or in close proximity to wood work. 
Pipes passing through floors or partitions, whether painted or 
not, ought to be separated from its surroundings by a metal 
thimble, so arranged as to allow of an air-space between it and 
the pipe. The material used for insulating steam pipes should 
be practically indestructible, at least by heat. Prof. Chas. B. 
Gibson, in " Hazard of Steam Pipes," says: 

"All organic matter, such as hair, felt, shoddy and paper, becomes more 
or less charred by constant contact with hot steam pipes for a long time, 
even though the temperature be but little above the boiling point of water; 
and by, steam of 300 F. and above, so thoroughly scorched after a time as to 
become very fragile and to crumble away rapidly. It is noticeable that the 
dust formed from this charred material is very combustible, and will flash 
like gunpowder when thrown into a fire; hence, it is evident that if it be- 
comes once ignited, rapid combustion will ensue." 

In indirect radiation in steam heating the same careful 
attention should be given to hot-air flues and registers as in 
furnace heating. The surroundings of steam-traps, indirect 



hEATING OF BUILDINGS. 27 

radiators, etc., ought to be kept free from dirt, and all wood- 
work be properly protected. 

Radiators and coils should be placed a safe distance from 
the wall or ceiling, and dirt, rags, chips and clothing never 
allowed to collect about them, as it does not take a great while 
for a sufficient amount of heat to accumulate between the coils 
when confined to set fire to any combustible articles in contact 
with them. Even though there be but a small amount of heat 
given off, sufficient may accumulate, under favorable condi- 
tions, to prove a source of danger. 

Stoves. — Where stoves are used, the floor should be thor- 
oughly protected, not by a sheet of zinc alone, nor simply by a 
layer of brick. The brick should be separated from the floor- 
ing by a layer of cement, and over the brick may be placed the 
zinc. This method would insure the greatest amount of safety. 

The stove should be free from cracks. If it is placed near 
wood-work of any kind, which should be avoided if possible, 
the exposed objects should be protected by the use of tin or 
galvanized iron shields. Wood must not be placed near to or 
under stoves, nor leaned up against them. If possible, the 
stove should be made inaccessible to patients. 

The stovepipe should fit snugly at all its joints. Where the 
pipe is long, the joints should be riveted, and the pipe firmly 
supported by wires. When it is necessary that stove pipes 
should pass through floor or partitions, the surrounding wood- 
work must be protected in the same manner as are heat con- 
ductors. The pipe near floors, or where passing through closets 
or bath-rooms, should be surrounded by tin or galvanized iron, 
an air-space of two inches intervening. The tops of pipes 
should be frequently dusted. The stovepipe should not enter 
the chimney in an unused room or in a closet. 

Hot-Air Flues. — It has been estimated that 25 per cent, 
of all fires occurring in the United States are caused by defect- 
ive flues, and that the annual loss thereby amounts to 



28 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

$5,000,000. The defective flue is the result not so much of 
ignorance as of carelessness on the part of the builder. In 
the larger cities provision is made in the building laws con- 
cerning the construction of chimneys and flues. Hospital 
authorities should make themselves familiar with what is nec- 
essary in the construction of flues and chimneys, and should 
see to it that this source of danger is eliminated. All unused 
flue-holes should be closed with metal stoppers. 

Ashes should never be thrown into barrels or boxes; metal 
receptacles only should be used. 

LIGHTING OF BUILDINGS. 

Under this heading will be considered the various methods 
in use for the lighting of hospital buildings, with some of the 
dangers connected therewith, and some of the ways in which 
these dangers may be averted. Whatever system of illumina- 
tion be used, whether it be by kerosene oil, gasolene, gas, or 
electric light, constant watchfulness and care is necessary in 
order that it may be kept in as safe a condition as possible. 
It is poor policy to consider any of the methods now in use for 
lighting purposes as absolutely trustworthy, for none of them 
are. Electricity is fast taking the place of other systems of 
lighting, and is without doubt the safest and best of any yet 
employed. But few institutions are using kerosene oil, some 
still cling to gasolene vapor, while the majority, probably, are 
burning coal-gas. 

Kerosene-Oil Lighting. — Where kerosene oil is used for 
lighting purposes, the oil should be of the very best quality. 
If kept in large quantities it should be stored in a fire-proof 
room or in a separate building. It should never be necessary* 
to enter the oil-room with a light of any kind. 

Lamps. — Glass lamps are dangerous, and ought never to be 
used. Those made of metal alone are objectionable on account 
of their liability to leak. Glass lamps in metal cases are free 



LIGHTING OF BUILDINGS. 29 

from the objections of either the glass or metal lamps, and are 
considered quite safe. A leaky lamp, or one with a loose han- 
dle or base, should never be lighted. Lamps should be cleaned 
and filled early in the day — never after dark. Filling a lighted 
lamp is a most dangerous thing, and ought never be permitted. 
Hand-lamps should never be left with patients or set about 
where patients can get them. It is far better to have safe 
hanging-lamps, placed out of reach in each hall or ward. 
Bracket-lamps, if used, should not be placed in proximity to 
curtains or draperies, and ought to be so arranged as not to 
swing against the wall or close to inflammable articles. 

Lanterns. — The same precautions as to the filling, trim- 
ming and cleaning of lamps, as well as to the quality of oil 
used in them, applies to lanterns. It is usually necessary to 
" pick up " the wick of a lantern once or oftener during the 
night, when used by night-watches especially. This should 
never be done on a table containing inflammable articles of any 
kind. A small particle of the burning wick may be flirted into 
the folds of the table-spread, or into a basket of paper, fancy- 
work, etc., and in this way start a fire. This accident has 
actually happened. Broken or insecure lanterns have been the 
cause of many fires. The lamp of the lantern should be firmly 
fixed, not simply held in place by a catch or spring. 

Gasolene-Gas Lighting. — The greatest care is necessary, 
in lighting a building with gasolene-gas, that the machinery is 
of the very best make, and that the workmanship on the 
pipes, etc., is perfect. The fluid itself should never be kept in 
the building, but always in a separate fire-proof structure or 
underground vault, a safe distance away. The pipes should 
all incline towards the machine. The vapor of gasolene is 
highly inflammable, and a most dangerous thing to have about 
in large quantities. A very careful and thorough inspection 
of pipes and other fixtures should be frequently made, so that 
they may be kept in as perfect a condition as possible. 



30 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

Probably the safest way to do with a gasolene-gas plant is to 
get rid of it as soon as possible, substituting for it something 
safer and better. The storing of gasolene in the same building 
in which the insane live, as is sometimes done, cannot be too 
strongly condemned. To lock up scores of human beings in 
a building with a great tank of gasolene should not be coun- 
tenanced for a moment. 

Coal-Gas Lighting. — As in the case of gasolene, the 
piping and fixtures should always be in good repair, the joints 
so securely made as to allow of no leakage of gas. Frequent 
inspection is necessary, such inspection being done only by 
daylight. To look for a gas leak, whether from pipes or 
metre, with a candle, lamp or lantern, is the height of folly. 
Many fires have been caused by this carelessness, and not a 
few lives lost. 

In halls or wards where there are disturbed or violent 
patients the jets should be placed entirely out of reach. 
Where lights are kept burning through the night, they should 
be far enough away from transoms to be out of reach of ropes 
made of twisted straw or bedding. 

Metal or porcelain shields should be hung above fixtures 
wherever the distance between the jet and ceiling, wood-work 
or other ignitible substance is less than three feet. Brackets 
on side walls should be stationary, or else fitted with guard 
rings of large diameter. The wall may be further protected 
by a plate of metal. The fixed lights should be placed so that 
in opening doors they will not come near to the gas flame. 
Especial care must be taken in clothes closets, wardrobes, 
store-rooms, bath-rooms, basement rooms generally, narrow 
hallways and all other places where clothing and other inflam- 
mable articles are liable to come in contact with a flame. It 
is a very good plan to place securely about jets, in these places, 
large, strong wire nettings or cages. 

The hanging or placing of holiday trimmings, as evergreens, 



LIGHTING OF BUILDINGS. 31 

cotton batting, streamers, colored papers and the like, about 
gas or gas-lamp fixtures, should never be permitted. 

Matches. — Stringent rules should be adopted in every 
hospital regarding the care and use of matches. They should 
always be kept under lock and key, and every precaution 
taken to keep them out of the hands of patients. It is also 
important to keep matches safe from rats and mice. "Safety" 
matches, so-called because they can only be ignited upon 
certain prepared surfaces of boxes, are now very extensively 
used in hospitals, and generally prove quite satisfactory. 
Care should be taken that the boxes, when empty, are 
destroyed, not thrown away, to be found later by mischievously- 
inclined patients. The best plan would be to require that 
empty boxes be returned to the store-keeper before a new box 
is issued. A hint or two in regard to these "safety" matches 
may not come amiss. Owing to the explosive character of the 
material of which they are made, the striking of one upon the 
box causes numerous sparks to fly about. A spark coming in 
contact with the exposed heads of the matches in the box will 
set fire to them, and considerable of a flash will result. For 
this reason the box should always be closed before the match 
is struck. When the boxes are placed upon the box-holders, 
fastened to the wall near lamp-brackets or gas-fixtures, it 
should be arranged so that the heads of the matches are at 
the lower end of the box. 

Burned matches should not be immediately thrown into 
waste-paper baskets or dust-boxes, as they will sometimes 
retain enough heat to ignite inflammable substances. 

Candles should be used only when absolutely necessary, 
and then by those who can be trusted. 

Electric Lighting. — While the incandescent electric 
light which is now being adopted by so many institutions is 
by far the safest of all known means of artificial illumination, 
yet it may prove a source of danger from fire if the work of 



32 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

putting in wires, dynamos, lamps, etc., is not properly and 
skillfully done. Says Mr. Gerhard: * 

* * * " The whole work should always be done under the imme- 
diate superintendence of skilled and experienced electricians. It should 
also, from time to time, be carefully inspected and tested. The current 
generating machine, or dynamo, should be fitted up in some dry place, kept 
scrupulously clean and free from all chips, waste or inflammable dust. 
Electric light wires should be run so as to be readily accessible, easily 
inspected, and repaired without causing undue trouble. All joints in the 
wires should be made perfect, and all wires in the interior of an institution 
ought to be thoroughly insulated, and shielded against moisture by non- 
conducting coverings, and protected from injury or contact with telegraph 
or telephone wires, and their position should be exactly laid down on the 
floor plans of the building. Wherever electricity is conducted into a 
building from outside sources, some approved automatic cut-off should be 
arranged near the entrance of the building, by means of which the circuit 
may be broken in case the generating current should become excessive. 

" Wherever arc lights are employed to light staircase and entrance 
halls, care should be taken that the dropping carbons may not cause a fire. 
It isbest to enclose arc lights with glass globes and provide a wire netting 
under the globes to keep the pieces of glass from falling in case of fracture." 

The following is extracted from a paper, read before the 
National Association of Fire Engineers, by Mr. Wm. Brophy, 
Inspector of the New England Insurance Exchange. First, 
in regard to the insulation of electric light wires : 

"The insulation most universally used for outside wires is the much 
talked of " underwriters " or painted cotton insulation. It is a very good 
insulation if kept dry, but when wet becomes an excellent conductor. I 
would advise you to treat any wire carrying high potential currents with the 
greatest consideration when it is covered with this material, and to give it 
all the territory you can spare when it is water-soaked from any cause. 

" There are other grades slightly better than this, but they are only 
attempts to produce something cheaper than the higher grade." 

In reference to the danger of fire from electric light wires 
Mr. Brophy says: 

*"The Prevention of Fire," by Wm. C. Gerhard. 



LIGHTING OF BUILDINGS. 33 

* * * » Where an electric lighting plant is properly installed, whether 
the current be furnished from a central station or a dynamo on the premi- 
ises, the danger of fire occurring from the same is reduced to a minimum. 
The causes which lead to fires from the arc-light system are very few indeed. 
The amount of current being constant, and far below the safe carrying 
capacity of the wires, danger of over-heating the same is avoided. Imper- 
fect joints, loose connections, or any other obstructions of this nature to 
the passage of the current may and sometimes do cause fires, the electro- 
motive force being sufficient to overcome such obstructions, and, in doing 
so, setting fire to any inflammable material intervening. The arc lamp 
itself has been the cause of the greatest number of fires — pardon me, I 
should say the incompetent, negligent attendant, by leaving bottoms 
intended to be closed, open, or by rtot removing broken globes when 
discovered. Dangers of fire from the direct, low-tension system of incand- 
escent lighting are or may be more numerous, providing they are permitted 
to exist. The pressure of electromotive force is nearly constant and is far 
below that point considered dangerous to life. The amount of current 
varies with the amount of light required. In large stations the currents 
from several large dynamos are sent into common mains or feeders. The 
current is sufficient in quantity to heat to a dangerous degree or even to melt 
the small house mains down if for any cause the resistance of the circuit 
should fall greatly by reason of ground connections or short circuits. To 
prevent this, metals of a low-fusing point are inserted, which melt long 
before the temperature of the wire reaches a dangerous point. Poor insu- 
lation and lack of ample separation is another source of danger. In wet or 
excessively damp places, wire should rest on nothing but insulating supports, 
no matter how good the insulating covering may be. They should not rest 
on wood or be fastened under wooden cleats. 

" A safe rule to apply to all wires concealed between floors and ceilings 
and behind partitions, is to use the same care as would be necessary were 
they not covered with any insulation at all. The general practice in New 
England is to use the very best insulation for this purpose, and by ample 
distance between the wires themselves, and gas and water pipes, to avoid 
danger from fire. The transformer or silent dynamo, used in the system of 
that name, has been excluded from the interior of buildings in New Eng- 
land. The reason for this is that the insulation sometimes burns slowly, 
and a considerable amount of smoke results." 

Kerosene Oil and Gas Stoves are often used at night 
for heating milk, etc. The stove should stand in a large shal- 



34 THE PREVENTION OF FIRE. 

low pan, when lighted, and entirely removed from the vicinity 
of combustible material. The rubber tubing should be sound 
and fit tightly at either end. In turning off the gas from a gas- 
stove, the supply should be cut off first from the gas fixture. 

Oiled Rags, Waste, Etc. — The disposition of oiled rags, 
cotton waste, etc., should receive very careful attention. The 
spontaneous combustion of oiled rags has been the cause of a 
very large number of fires, and probably the origin of many of 
the " cause unknown " fires has been due to this accident. 
Cloth, cotton waste, or dust, containing oil in small quantity, if 
placed under conditions favorable to the accumulation of heat 
generated within it, is liable to ignite spontaneously. It is 
therefore important that these substances should not be allowed 
to collect in closets or boxes. Dust and dirt boxes should be 
emptied daily. Oiled rags should either be hung up so that 
the air may circulate freely about them, or else spread out — 
never thrown in a heap into a box or closet, as is often done. 
Instead of being thrown away when useless, they should be 
burned, as rats will often carry them into walls and floors. 

Coal. — The spontaneous ignition of bituminous coal, when 
damp and stored in poorly-ventilated coal-houses or cellars, is 
not an uncommon occurrence, and measures should be taken to 
prevent it. Coal houses should be constructed so as to provide 
for the proper ventilation of the coal. The coal should also be 
kept as dry as possible. In placing coal in furnace rooms it 
should not be piled against furnace walls. If the lower stratum 
of coal shows signs of heating it must be spread out and 
exposed to the action of the air. 

Smoking. — Fires are sometimes caused by the careless dis- 
posal of ashes from tobacco-pipes, and of recently-smoked 
pipes, cigars, and cigarettes. Patients sometimes place in their 
pockets the pipes they have been smoking, without first empty- 
ing out the hot ashes. Smoking about a hospital, except in 
certain places, should be prohibited. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 35 

Cuspidors should be of metal, and filled with sand, cinders 
or gravel, rather than sawdust. 

Work-Shops.- — In the carpenter, machine, paint, and other 
shops, as well as in and about all of the stable and farm build- 
ings, the matter of the prevention of fire should receive very- 
close attention. All of these places should be frequently 
inspected, and the fire regulations rigidly enforced. 

Night Watches. — No institution, large or small, should be 
without an efficient night-watch service. This is one of the 
most important of all the means to be taken for the prevention 
of fire, and ought to receive special attention. The duties of 
night watches in regard to the prevention of fire should be 
plainly marked out. They should keep a sharp lookout for 
those things which, if neglected, might be the means of causing 
fire. Attics, basements, clothes closets, broom closets, laundry 
and drying rooms, kitchens, furnace-rooms, work-shops, and in 
fact all portions of an institution, should be visited and care- 
fully inspected at least once during the night. The night 
watch should see especially that radiators, steam pipes and 
registers are free from inflammable articles, that furnaces are 
not overheated, and that closets and chutes contain no oily 
rags or waste. 

Instruction to Employes. — There should be embodied in 
the rules of every institution explicit instructions regarding 
that which pertains to the prevention of fire, and these should 
be as rigidly enforced as any other of the hospital rules. It 
should be the duty of the Chief Marshal or one of his assistants 
to explain occasionally to employes the many ways in which 
fires may occur, and to point out the remedy. It would be well 
to make this a portion of the training-school curriculum. 



CHAPTER III. 

FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 

WHETHER a hospital for the insane be of fast- or slow- 
burning, or so-called fire-proof construction, it should 
be provided with ample facilities for extinguishing fire. Situ- 
ated, as institutions of this kind usually are, some distance from 
cities or towns, they necessarily depend, either entirely or to a 
great extent, upon their own resources in case of fire. Even 
though located near or within a city having an organized fire 
department, there is always more or less delay in the arrival of 
the firemen. To . have the proper fire-extinguishing facilities 
always at hand, with well-drilled men located in the institution, 
would seem to be in all cases the very best plan when the 
value and importance of time are taken into consideration. 
Surely no institution whose location is remote from a com- 
petent fire brigade should be without its own means for fighting 
fire. 

Fire-extinguishing apparatus, to be reliable, must be of the 
very best material and workmanship; it should always be in 
perfect working order, and at all times properly cared for. To 
suppose that fire apparatus of any kind will never require care, 
is a serious though quite common mistake — a mistake that 
often leads to disastrous results, as well as to condemnation of 
a really superior thing. The apparatus must be of such con- 
struction as to allow of considerable service, that firemen may 
be frequently and properly drilled in its use. Apparatus that 
cannot stand the wear and tear of frequent use for practice or 



WATER SUPPLY.— FIRE PUMPS. 37 

drill is not fit to be placed in any institution, and should never 
be depended upon. Good apparatus is all the better for being 
used, and with proper care will last nearly, if not quite, as long 
as it would were it never handled. A good piece of machinery 
will rust out sooner than it will wear out. 

To furnish a hospital with a cheap grade of fire-extinguish- 
ing apparatus, known to be unreliable, and simply exhibited for 
the purpose of warding off public opinion, is not far removed 
from criminality. 

The kind and amount of apparatus needed in any institu- 
tion will depend largely upon the size, construction, and the 
number and the distribution of the buildings to be protected, 
as well as upon the proximity of the hospital to a city with 
adequate facilities for fighting fire. 

There are many kinds of fire-extinguishing apparatus, but 
it is the aim to call attention particularly to that with which 
the writer is most familiar, and which he considers best adapted 
to the purpose of fire-protection in hospitals for the insane. 

Many things only lightly touched upon under the follow- 
ing headings, especially as to the use and care of apparatus, will 
be more thoroughly dealt with in the succeeding chapters. 

WATER-SUPPLY. 

From whatever source water for fire purposes is obtained, 
the supply should be constant and practically inexhaustible. 

Water tanks should never be placed in attics nor upon the 
tops of buildings. They are not only unreliable for the pur- 
poses of fire protection, but more than this, they are, in case of 
fire in the building in which they are placed, a great source of 
danger from their liability, on account of their great weight, to 
fall. 

THE FIRE PUMPS. 

should be located at a safe distance from any of the main build- 



38 FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 

ings, and they should be kept in such condition as to be in 
readiness, at any time of the day or night, to furnish water at 
fire pressure in from two to four minutes after the sounding of 
the alarm. 

WATER MAINS. 

The mains for the hydrant system should form a loop 
about the hospital plant, and ought not to be less than six 
inches in diameter, except where running to but one hydrant, 
in which case four-inch mains could be used. The mains 
should be supplied with straight-way stop-valves, so placed as 
to allow of the tapping of the main for pipe connections, or 
for the removal of a hydrant, without throwing out of service 
any but a small portion of the system. 

The running of mains under buildings should be avoided; 
if this is not possible they should be placed deep enough so 
as to be safe from injury by a falling wall. Where large 
branches run into a building they should be provided with 
stop-valves, placed outside of the building at a safe distance 
from its walls.* The breaking of a main or large branch by a 
falling wall would render useless or at least seriously cripple 
the rest of the system. 

FIRE HYDRANTS. 

That hydrant which offers to the flow of water through 
it the least amount of resistance, is obviously the best hydrant 
to use, for the less frictional loss there is at the hydrant the 
less the amount of. pressure there will be required at the 
pumps to give a good fire-stream. The principal cause of 
the loss of pressure in hydrants has been the obstruction of 
the water-way by the valve and valve-rod mechanism, which, 
when the hydrant is opened, occupies the center of the 
hydrant-barrel. Improvements have been made in this respect 

*J. B. Freeman, H. E. 



FIRE HYDRANTS. 



39 



from time to time, as the change from the "globe" to the 
"gate" valve. With the improvements there has been a 
lessening of the frictional resistance. The most recent change 
for the better has been in removing the rod and valve from 
the water-way entirely, when the hydrant is open, as shown in 
Fig. 2, leaving a clear, uniform water-way, the same size as 
the main to which it is attached. 




Fig. 2. — The "Beaumont" hydrant, showing hydrant open. 



In planti?ig hydrants, they should be so placed as to allow of the 
concentration, upo?i any point, of two or more streams from lines 
of hose no more than 250 feet in length. The fewer the number of 
hydrants the more hose will it be necessary to carry on the 
carts. For several reasons extra hydrants are to be preferred 
to extra hose: hydrants and hydrant mains are cheaper than 
hose; the larger amount of hose requires heavier carts, and 
this extra weight would require more men to move it; a long 
line of hose is more difficult of management than a short line, 
and more time is consumed in laying it; the loss of pressure 
by friction increases with the increase in the length of the 
hose. 



4 o FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 

The space about the base of hydrants should be rilled 
with loose stones and covered with coarse manure, so as to 
form a reservoir into which the hydrants can empty. 

Nothing smaller than a four-inch hydrant should be. used. 
Those with but one nozzle are to be preferred, but where 
single-nozzle hydrants cannot be placed sufficiently near to 
each other, then two- or three-nozzle hydrants may be used to 
advantage. 

Hydrants should be placed far enough from buildings to 
escape being injured by falling walls. They should be fre- 
quently tested, winter and summer. The coupling should be 
occasionally treated with a little mineral oil. 

It ought not to be necessary to use forcible effort to close 
a hydrant and make it water-tight. If this is necessary it 
shows that the hydrant is not in good order, and unless the 
trouble is soon remedied the hydrant is in danger of being 
seriously damaged. 

FIRE PAILS. 

There is no doubt that many incipient fires may be extin- 
guished by the use, at the proper moment, of a pail of water; 
and where several pails are handy a larger blaze may be con- 
trolled or held in check until the arrival of more efficient 
apparatus.* 

There should be provided for each hall or ward from five 
to ten fire pails. By placing them in a cabinet, the lock of 
which is the same as those upon the ward doors, they may be 
always easily accessible to attendants, and at the same time be 
out of the reach of patients. 

There are several kinds of fire pails, some of which are 
quite expensive. For hospital use something simple and dura- 

* It is a matter of record that of the losses in mills paid for by the 
insurance companies, twice as many fires are put out by pails as by any 
other means. — Woodbury, "The Fire Protection of Mills." 



BATH TUBS.— HAND GRENADES. 41 

ble is the best. The pail should be light, strong, and of good 
size. Those made of indurated fibre are superior to the com- 
mon wooden pail, or to those made of paper or rubber. They 
are seamless, hoopless, and are said to be proof against the 
action of water or of the atmosphere. On each pail should be 
stenciled, in plain letters, "Fire," or "For Fire Only" as this will 
guard in a measure against their being used for other purposes. 
They should be kept nearly full of water, and the water should 
be changed at regular intervals, so that it may be kept fresh. 
It is better not to place covers upon the pails, as is often recom- 
mended, to guard against evaporation, for the reason that they 
can be inspected to better advantage if uncovered; and if the 
water is changed at regular intervals evaporation will cut no 
figure. 

The pails made with rounded bottoms, which when filled 
with water, must be either hung up or set in openings in shelves 
or racks, while not likely to be used for other than fire pur- 
poses, are objectionable for the reason that they cannot be set 
down, as would in many cases be necessary, especially if a 
hand pump were used. 

A small hand force pump, with rubber tubing and nozzle 
attached, would be a valuable addition to each set of pails. 

BATH TUBS. 

The bath tub is a useful auxiliary to the fire pail, especially 
where the use of the pails is alone to be depended upon in case 
of fire, and in those portions of buildings the least accessible to 
firemen. It ought to be partially filled with water every night, 
and the key of the faucet left in place, or quite handy. The 
water could be turned on by the first one coming to refill a 
fire pail, and thus a constant supply could be had. 

HAND GRENADES, 
in the shape of bottles and tubes, generally made of glass, con- 



42 FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 

taining a pint or more of some chemical fluid, are familiar to 
almost everyone, as they are to be found in a great many pub- 
lic buildings, manufactories, railway carriages, etc. There is no 
doubt that hand grenades have been the means of extinguish- 
ing incipient fires, but unfortunately the great majority of fires 
start in such inaccessible places as to render this means of 
extinguishment utterly useless. Everything considered, hand 
grenades are not nearly as efficient as are pails of water for 
fighting incipient fires. The objections to their use in hospitals 
so outweigh their good qualities that they cannot be recom- 
mended. 

PORTABLE CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS. 

The Graham method of extinguishing fire, by the use of 
a commingled stream of carbonic acid gas and water, is without 
doubt, next to the use of large quantities of water, the most 
efficient and reliable known, and the portable hand fire extin- 
guishers from which this stream is thrown should be an essen- 
tial part of the fire-extinguishing apparatus outfit of every 
hospital. A very large percentage of all fires occurring in 
institutions for the insane could be extinguished by this means, 
provided, of course, the fire was not allowed to gain too much 
headway; and even fires of no mean proportions may be extin- 
guished or at least controlled by one or more of the extin- 
guishers, properly used. The principal points in favor of this 
method of extinguishing small fires are: — (i.) The compara- 
tive ease with which a fire, inaccessible to all other means used, 
may be reached; (2) the manner in which a fire is extinguished 
without the use of large quantities of water; (3) the accuracy 
with which a stream may be directed; (4) the ease with which 
the extinguisher is recharged and made ready for use. 

These extinguishers, known as the "Babcock" and "Cham- 
pion," are made of copper, in three sizes, with a capacity of 
six, three, and one and one-half gallons respectively. 



CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS. 



43 



The "Babcock." — A solution of bi-carbonate of sodium in 
water nearly fills the tank. A sealed bottle of sulphuric acid 
("A," Fig. 3), supported in a cup ("B," Fig. 3), and held in 
place by a spring cap which fits over the neck of the bottle 
(Fig. 4), is suspended in the alkaline solution, and is firmly 
fixed by its connection with the top of the extinguisher, the top 
being tightly screwed into place. Turning the wheel on top to 
the left, pressure is brought to bear upon the weak portion of 





Fig. 3- 



Fig. 4- 



the bottle noticed in figure 4, and it is broken. Immediately 
upon the mixing of the two fluids a large quantity of carbonic 
acid gas is formed, which, by its pressure, 100 pounds to the 
square inch, forces from the tank, through the hose attached to 
it, all of the contained water, together with the gas itself, a 
non-supporter of combustion, and sulphate of sodium, which 
latter is precipitated upon objects with which the fluid comes 
in contact. This precipitate, a white powder, is harmless, and 
easily removed. There is, however, liable to be an excess of 
the acid at the very beginning of the stream, which might prove 
more or less harmful to clothing or furniture. This does not 



44 FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 

always occur, but is to be borne in mind. If the stream is 
directed only upon the fire no damage can be done. The 
stream from a six-gallon extinguisher may be thrown a distance 
of about 35 feet, and can be controlled by a stop-cock at the 
nozzle. About four minutes are required for the extinguisher 
to empty itself.. The stream may be made larger in diameter, 
and the contents of the tank made to escape more rapidly, by 
increasing the bore of the nozzle. 

The "Champion." — The difference between the "Babcock" 
and the "Champion" is that in the "Champion" the acid is 
placed in an open cup in the extinguisher, and it is only neces- 
sary that the tank be inverted to cause the cup to be emptied. 
On this account the "Babcock" is greatly to be preferred, as 
the extinguisher is very likely to become inverted long before 
the fire is reached. 

The larger size of the "Babcock" extinguishers should be 
placed about the institution where most needed. They should 
be conveniently located, easily accessible to attendants and 
employes, but out of the reach of patients. There should be 
two placed in the Amusement Hall, one or two in the adminis- 
trative department, a few in the workshops, laundry rooms, etc., 
and four on the ladder truck, if there be one. A few of the me- 
dium and small-sized extinguishers should be placed about the 
wards for female patients. 

In purchasing extinguishers, especially those to be used on 
the ladder truck, the manufacturer should be requested to add 
about six or eight feet to the hose usually furnished. The 
shoulder straps should be removed, as they oftener prove a 
nuisance than a help. 

STATIONARY CHEMICAL ENGINE. 

Upon the same principle as the above described portable 
fire extinguishers is made a stationary chemical fire extinguish- 
ing apparatus, known as the " Champion Stationary Chemical 



CHEMICAL ENGINES. 



45 



Engine." It consists of a tank with a capacity of ioo to 1,000 
gallons, placed in the basement. From this a stand-pipe 
ascends from floor to floor as high as needed. On each floor 
there are hose connections, and hose on a reel. By touching 
an electric button, or by pulling a wire in connection with the 
apparatus, the tank in the basement is tipped, and the same 
chemical action occurring in the portable extinguishers takes 
place. The stream can be thrown about 75 feet. 

The expense incurred in the protection in this manner of 
every portion of a large institution, with many detached build- 
ings, would be very great, and much more than would be nec- 




Fig. 5.— Portable Chemical Engine. 



essary for as good protection by other means. The chief objec- 
tion, however, is that which applies to the use of any form of 



46 FIRE.-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 

indoor stationary apparatus: — that is, the liability of the appa- 
ratus being inaccessible, when most needed, on account of 
smoke or of the location of the fire. If used, it should not be 
depended upon to the exclusion of the more portable appli- 
ances. 

PORTABLE CHEMICAL ENGINES. 

Portable chemical engines are becoming more and more 
popular with firemen in cities and towns, as a quick and effect- 
ual means of extinguishing fire. They are particularly desirable 
in that they save a great amount of loss to goods easily damaged 
by water. They work upon the same principle as do the port- 
able hand fire extinguishers, and the chemicals used are the 
same. They are made in different sizes, from fifty gallons 
capacity up. A two-wheeled engine of fifty gallons capacity 
[Fig 5,] would be a convenient and useful piece of apparatus 
for a hospital, especially one not provided with an abundant 
water supply, or with inefficient facilities for using it to the best 
advantage in case of fire. A chemical engine should not take 
the place of the smaller extinguishers, nor of a reliable water 
supply, but if the water supply is unreliable, or for any reason 
whatever, is not to be depended on, an engine of this kind 
should be put into service. It is light enough to be easily 
drawn about by a company of four men, and if properly used 
will accomplish much good. 

Stand-Pipes. — An iron pipe, connecting with a water- 
main, is run up through a building from cellar to attic. To this 
are connected on each floor, several lengths of hose, either 
reeled or laid upon racks, with nozzle attached. Many public 
buildings are provided with this system of protection, which is 
generally more ornamental than useful, and in case of actual 
need usually, if used at all, proves entirely unsatisfactory. 
The very cheapest grade of hose, which will scarcely hold 
water, is often the kind used, and it remains reeled up or lying 



AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS.— FIRE HOSE. 47 

upon its rack for months and years. Even though provided 
with the best of hose, and pains be taken to keep it in good 
condition, there are many serious objections to the stand-pipe 
system, which objections have already been considered. 

AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS. 

A system of automatic sprinklers could with advantage be 
placed in the various laundry rooms, and in work-shops in 
general. But no matter how perfect the system may be when 
first put in, if not carefully looked after, it is liable after a time 
to get out of order. There is not much danger of the sprinklers 
themselves getting out of order without giving notice of the 
fact, but through carelessness the supply of water may be ren- 
dered inadequate, or it may be entirely cut off. There should 
be a ready means of determining at any time whether water is 
being supplied the sprinkler system or not. The main supply- 
ing the sprinklers should be in connection with the hydrant 
mains. Outside the building, in connection with the supply- 
pipe, should be placed a stop-valve, which should be sealed open. 

FIRE-HOSE. 

A cheap grade of fire-hose is by far the most costly pur- 
chase that could possibly be made; that is, if it is intended for 
use in case of fire. If it is simply to be placed on exhibition 
for the purpose of deluding the public, then it will answer ad- 
mirably. Large quantities of absolutely worthless hose are 
manufactured because there is a demand for an article that is 
cheap, and which it is not the intention to put to any practical 
use. Thousands of public buildings, hotels, theatres, manufac- 
tories and hospitals are provided with this dangerous stuff. 
" This hose will not burst under any amount of pressure," said 
a dealer, and then explained, "because it is so porous and seive- 
like that it will not hold water under any pressure! " 



48 



FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 



While the use of hose in connection with inside stand-pipes 
is undesirable, for the reasons already given, if for any reason 
this must be done, the hose used, in order that it may be of 
service at all, must be of the very best quality. For this pur- 
pose a thoroughly reliable unlined linen hose, that will stand a 
pressure of 400 pounds, and that will do no more than sweat 
when water is first forced through it, is to be preferred to any 
other. It has been recommended by Mr. John R. Freeman, H. 
E., that " the manufacturer of unlined linen hose be required to 
guarantee that the hose bearing his name and trade-mark 
shall not, upon delivery, burst at a water pressure less than 400 
pounds to the square inch." 

A thoroughly good quality of medium weight two and one-half 
inch cotton rubber-lined hose would be the best for use in connec- 
tion with outside hydrants for fire purposes. Being wet, it is 
easily and quickly dried, and an occasional wetting rather 
improves than injures it ; it will stand the wear and tear occa- 
sioned by its use in drills much better than will linen hose, and 
the loss of pressure in the stream by friction is very much less. 





Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 

Figs. 6 and 7. — Two-ply, seamless, woven cotton rubber-lined hose. 



The rubber lining slfould be very smooth, as the frictional 
loss due to a rough lining is quite marked. The durability of 
the outer surface of hose should also be considered. It must 



HOSE CARTS AND EQUIPMENT. 



49 



be so compact as to permit of the least possible absorption of 
water, or of the introduction into its meshes of dirt or sand. 

The quality of hose for hospital use should be as good as 
that used by the fire departments of the larger cities. Before 
purchasing hose it would be well to consult the chief of some 
city fire department as to the best grade of hose in use at the 
time. 

Hose, used by institutions situated within or near a city 
having a fire brigade, should correspond, as to size of couplings, 
with that used by the city. 

HOSE CARTS AND EQUIPMENT. 

The hose carts, two to four or five in number, should be 
strong, light, weighing about 600 pounds, and simple in con- 
struction, with a carrying capacity of 300 feet of hose. [Fig. 8.] 




Fiff. 8. — Hose Cart. 



Equipment. — Besides 250 or 300 feet of hose, there should 
be for each cart a play-pipe and nozzle. The play-pipe should 
be light, but strong and durable ; the thread must correspond 
perfectly with the thread of the hose coupling. A plain, 



50 FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 

smooth nozzle is as good, if not better, than any other,* and is 
to be preferred to any complicated affair. One or two spray 
nozzles, by the use of which a fine spray of water is thrown 




Fig. 9. Combined hose and ladder strap, belt and spanner. As belt. 



about the men holding the pipe, would be useful. They could 
be carried in the tool-box of the cart, to be used if necessary. 
There should be one or'two extra pipes and nozzles, to be 
kept at the hose-house. Each hoseman should be provided 
with a spanner and a hose-strap, or better still, a combination, 
as shown in Fig. 9. These spanners and straps should be kept 
on the cart when not in use. The tool-box should contain the 
hydrant wrench. 

LADDER TRUCK AND EQUIPMENT. 

The ladder truck should be well and strongly made and at 
the same time light enough to be easily handled by eight or 
ten men. A poorly made truck would not long withstand 
the rough usage it must necessarily receive at the hands of 
unskilled men ; whereas, one that is strongly made, of the best 
material, would last many years. A good truck for hospital 
use would weigh about 1,200 pounds. 

*" A ring nozzle of ordinary form, with shoulders 1-16 to l /& inch deep 
discharges only about three-fourths as much water as a smooth nozzle of 
the same size." — John B. Freeman, H. E. 



LADDER TRUCK.— HOSE HOUSE. 



5i 



Equipment. — The ladder truck should be equipped about 
as follows: One extension ladder, made up of two ladders, 21 
and 18 feet respectively, splicing 36 feet; one extension (16 
and 13 feet) splicing 26 feet; one single ladder, 22 feet; one 




Fig. 10. Hook and Ladder Truck. Hangers for fire-hats instead of fire-buckets. 



roof ladder, 12 feet ; two fire axes ; two pike poles ; four "Bab- 
cock" fire extinguishers ; four lanterns ; ten or twelve hangers 
for fire hats ; two tool boxes ; a crow bar ; a shovel, and a 
broom ; 100 feet of rope for use by hose companies. If it is 
necessary to have a ladder larger than the 36 foot extension, 
it should not be carried on the truck, but placed at a conven- 
ient point, under cover, near the place where it would be most 
needed. 

THE HOSE HOUSE. 

The hose house should be substantially built and centrally 
located. It should be large enough to contain, without 
crowding, the ladder truck, hose carts and chemical engine, 



52 FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 

if there be one. There should be a room for the hose-house 
janitor, and a closet or store-room for supplies of various 
kinds. It would be a good plan, also, to provide sleeping 
apartments for those men who compose the chemical com- 
pany. By so doing, there would be a very material saving of 
time in getting the truck and chemical extinguishers on the 
way to the fire at night. 

The floor should pitch slightly towards the center, so that 
water used in washing the apparatus could run into the sewer 
pipes, made to connect with an opening in the floor. The 
doors should open outwards, and be of sufficient size to allow 
of the easy passage of the widest Vehicle. The common male 
ward key should control the door lock, so that delay need never 
be necessary in looking for the hose-house key. 

If there is no tower for drying hose, racks should, be 
made, long enough to carry a full length (50 ft.) of hose, 
inclined enough to allow for drainage. If a tower is provided, 
shelves or racks may be made, upon which extra lengths of 
dry hose, coiled, may be placed. 

Hooks for fire-hats and coats should be conveniently 
placed. The house should be well-ventilated, and kept warm 
in winter. 

The hose-tower is a great convenience, and is necessary for 
quickly drying wet hose. There should be some means pro- 
vided for furnishing heat to the tower when wet hose is 
hanging in it. The distance from the ground to the hangers 
for hose must be at least fifty-three feet. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE FIRE ALARM. 

SOME reliable method whereby the members of the Fire 
Brigade may be quickly and surely notified that their ser- 
vices are required is essential to a proper system of fire protec- 
tion. ' Most disastrous results have followed the loss of time 
between the discovery of a fire and the giving of the alarm. 
These delays are generally due to the fact that either no system 
whatever is used, or else the system used is unreliable. Where 
life and property are in danger from fire, and every second's 
time is of the utmost importance, there should be the smallest 
possible amount of time lost in properly notifying those who 
are to save the life and property endangered. 

The notification of the whole brigade should be immediate. 
Where fire is concerned there is no time for messengers to be 
sent hither and thither to notify this or that person that a fire 
is in progress. Neither should the discovery of fire be a matter 
for investigation by some one in authority before an alarm is 
sounded. Better that any number of unnecessary alarms be 
sounded than that the dangers of delay be risked in a single 
instance. 

THE FIRE BELL OR FIRE WHISTLE. 

Whatever is used for sounding an alarm of fire, be it bell 
or whistle, it should never be used for other than fire purposes. 
There should never be occasion for a moment's doubt in the 
minds of the firemen when they hear the fire alarm. Each 
member of the Fire Brigade should know at once, when he 



54 THE FIRE ALARM. 

hears a particular bell or whistle, what is expected of him. 
The regular alarm-bell or whistle may be supplemented by the 
blowing of another whistle or by other means, but the ringing 
of the fire bell or the blowing of the fire whistle should mean 
but one thing, and should of itself carry definite information 
to the ears of the firemen. 

The bell or whistle should be operated by electricity, being 
placed either upon the circuit with the alarm boxes and indi- 
cators, or upon a separate circuit, the alarm, in the latter case, 
being transmitted at the office by means of a switch. The 
safest way would be to place the bell or whistle on the box cir- 
cuit, so there would be no delay, after a box is pulled, in sound- 
ing the alarm. There would be a chance for considerable delay 
if a separate circuit were used. The mechanism by which the 
bell or whistle is operated may be so arranged as to prevent an 
alarm being sounded except when a box is pulled. Any acci- 
dental interruption of the current would give notification at the 
indicator, but would be insufficient to release the mechanism 
controlling the bell or whistle. 

OPEN AND CLOSED ELECTRIC CIRCUITS. 

No system of fire alarm should be operated upon any other 
than a constantly closed electric circuit. With an ope?i circuit 
system there is never any certainty, except at the time of test- 
ing and of giving an alarm, whether the system is in good work- 
ing order or not. The wires may be cut or otherwise injured ; 
the connections at the battery may be loosened or broken, or 
the battery itself run down, and the system thus rendered use- 
less for the time being, and the probabilities are that the fact 
of its uselessness would not be discovered until the regular time 
for a test, or until an unsuccessful attempt had been made to 
turn in an alarm of fire. The current of electricity passes 
through the wires only when the circuit is closed, that is, when 
a test is made or an alarm is sounded. 



THE GAMEWELL RAPID SYSTEM. 55 

The current of electricity in the closed circuit systems is con- 
stant except when the circuit is opened, by accident or design. 
The alarm mechanism is not operated by the electric current, 
but is held in check by it, so that any interference with the 
constant passage of electricity through the circuit, be the inter- 
ference accidental or otherwise, will liberate this mechanism, 
and an alarm will be the result. The closed circuit system is 
known to be in order as long as it makes no sound. The open 
circuit system may or may not be in order when quiet. 

THE GAMEWELL RAPID SYSTEM. 

of fire alarm telegraph, now in successful operation at the 
hospital at Kankakee, 111., would seem to the writer to best meet 
the requirements of public institutions. This system consists 
essentially of mechanism held in check by electricity. The clock 
work signaling mechanism of the alarm boxes is accurately and 
substantially made, each box with a circuit-breaking wheel, 
which, in revolving, breaks and closes a closed electric circuit a 
number of times, corresponding to the number of the box or sta- 
tion. This clock-work is secured in an iron case, or box, with 
glass or metallic face, through which the actuator of the mechan- 
ism projects, to give the means for sounding an alarm. This case 
of signal mechanism is enclosed within an outer iron case or 
box, the door of which may be secured by a trap-lock, keys 
being distributed amongst employes. The Rapid Indicator [Fig. 
12] with loud vibrating gong, placed at some central point, 
indicates the number of the alarm station or box operated. 
The mechanism of the box is set in motion simply by the pull- 
ing down and letting go of the actuator. [Fig. 13.] Before 
the person operating the box has time to turn about, the pointer 
of the indicator is thrown to the number on the dial corre- 
sponding to the number of the station or box from which the 
alarm is sent. At the same instant the gongs are vibrating, 
and if the fire-bell or whistle is included in the circuit, the 



56 



THE FIRE ALARM. 



alarm will be sounded. The system being operated on a closed 
circuit, any accidental interference with the current would be 




Fig ii. Fig. 12. Fig. 13 

as quickly known as would the turning in of an alarm of fire. 



THE GAMEWELL RAPID SYSTEM. 57 

The system should be put in service by those familiar with 
the work, so that the necessary care and attention will be given 
to the adjustment of the various mechanisms, to the wiring, etc. 
The system should be tested at regular intervals, once or twice 
each day, and every part of it kept in good order by the elec- 
trician. 

Boxes or Stations. — The alarm stations [Figs. 11 and 13] 
should be placed at convenient points, in hall-ways, corridors, 
etc., if indoors, and on telegraph or electric light poles, if out- 
side, the distance from any given point to a box being not 
greater than 75 or 100 yards. Where boxes are placed so as to 
be exposed to inclement weather, or to interference by mis- 
chievous patients, it would be well to enclose them in larger 
wooden boxes. If so arranged, a keyless door could be used 
on the alarm box, a trap-lock securing the door of the outer 
box. The numbering of stations should begin at eight or 
nine, the smaller numbers of the indicator being reserved for 
registering false alarms. The reason for this is that there 
would then be less liability of an accidental break in the circuit 
registering a station number. Accidental interruptions in the 
current will, in the majority of instances, throw the pointer of 
the indicator to figure one of the dial, but it will occasionally 
happen that the pointer will be sent beyond this. 

Keys. — Each officer and employe of the institution should 
be furnished with a numbered fire-alarm key, which should be 
kept on the key-ring with the keys in daily use. The Fire 
Marshal should keep a list of those having keys, the number 
of the key being placed opposite the name of the holder, so 
the Marshal may, after releasing a key from the trap-lock of a 
station, know to whom the key belongs. Holders of keys 
should be made thoroughly familiar with their use. 

The Indicator. — An Indicator [Fig. 12], with vibrating 
gong attached, should be placed in the main hall, near the 
executive offices, and one in the hose-house. Near each indi- 



58 THE FIRE ALARM. 

cator should be hung a card upon which is printed the num- 
ber and location of each station. 

The Circuit. — The wire connecting the stations, indica- 
tors, etc., constituting the circuit, should be well insulated, and 
of sufficient strength and conductivity to insure permanence and 
economy of battery. In buildings it is well, if possible, to have 
all wires concealed, and wherever within easy reach they 
should be enclosed in gas-pipe. Where strung on poles with 
other wires, the fire-alarm wires should be placed above all 
others, to guard against possible interference with the circuit 
by being crossed by other wires. 

The boxes or stations, indicators, gongs, and fire-alarm 
bell or whistle, may be included in the same circuit, or the 
boxes, indicators and gongs may be placed on one circuit, and 
the alarm-bell or whistle on another, the latter to be operated 
from the office by a switch placed near the indicator. The sin- 
gle circuit is the safer way. The ordinary gravity battery is to 
be preferred to any other for operating a closed-circuit system. 

THERMOSTAT ALARM SYSTEM. 

A closed-circuit thermostat system may be advantageously 
employed as supplemental to the system described above. 
The thermostats could be placed in attics, basements, and 
throughout the various work-rooms and shops. The annuncia- 
tor should be placed in the main office, from whence the alarm 
by whistle or bell could be given by an electric switch or by 
turning in the alarm from the nearest alarm station. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE FIRE BRIGADE. 

AFTER an institution is well supplied with the necessary 
facilities for extinguishing fire, and has also a reliable 
fire-alarm system, it still cannot be considered as properly 
protected unless there be in addition some system of organi- 
zation and drill whereby the apparatus may, when needed, be 
handled intelligently. There is scarcely any institution, large 
or small, where it would be impossible or inexpedient to have 
some form of organization and drill. 

Fire apparatus in warehouses, public buildings, hospitals, 
etc., generally prove useless at the time of a fire because of 
the very small amount of attention ever paid to the matter by 
those employed in and about such buildings or institutions. 
It is not an unusual thing to find hose rotting on the reels, 
fire-pails empty, or nearly so, and many other evidences of 
neglect, all pointing to the absence of system. It is rather 
the exception to find a single person about a public building 
who is at all [practically familiar with the manner of using any 
of the fire-extinguishing facilities with which it may be 
provided. 

" Premising that my experience is limited to the supervision of the 
factories which are insured by the Factory Mutual Companies, I beg to say 
that our experience has been that private fire apparatus is of little or no 
service unless it is put in the charge of a well-organized private fire 
department, regularly drilled, consisting of men who are employed in the 
factories or works ; there are few points on which we are more .urgent 
than in promoting such organizations." — Edward Atkinson. 



60 THE FIRE BRIGADE. 

The Fire Brigade should be an essential part of the 
machinery of fire protection. A great display of fire ap- 
paratus is no protection in itself. A few dollars' worth of the 
simplest apparatus, in the hands of half a dozen brave, cool- 
headed, well-drilled men, is far better protection than is many 
thousand dollars' worth of expensive machinery left to run 
itself, or to be used by excited, untrained men. No matter 
whether the institution be poorly or generously supplied 
with the means for extinguishing fire, the necessity for an 
intelligent use of the apparatus is the same. If fire-pails 
only are furnished, all the more reason why they should 
be kept in order, and when used, used promptly and 
properly. There is no doubt that many large fires in the past 
could have been prevented had there been at hand, while the 
fire was in its incipiency, some one experienced in the use of 
fire apparatus. It is a well-known fact that untrained and 
inexperienced men lose their heads in the presence of fire, and 
generally forget about the means close at hand for putting out 
fire, which they have often seen but never handled. 

PLAN OF ORGANIZATION. 

The manner of organization of a Fire Brigade in any 
hospital for the insane will necessarily depend upon the size 
of the institution, as well as upon the kind and amount of fire- 
extinguishing apparatus in use. A system is here proposed 
which would be suitable more particularly for use in the larger 
institutions. It is intended, however, that what is here offered 
may be modified to suit the peculiarities of each institution, 
large or small. 

The whole Brigade can be made up from the officers and 
employes of the institution, and this with but little interference 
with their other duties. There should always be a certain 
number in each company, and vacancies filled as soon as they 
occur. The number of active members must exceed the 



CHIEF MARSHAL. 61 

number actually necessary at any one time, because it is 
seldom that more than two-thirds of the Brigade can be 
depended upon to respond to an alarm, except at night, 
between the retiring and rising hours. During the day and 
early evening some of the attendants are off duty and away 
from the hospital, while others are out walking with patients, 
so that the number who could at once respond to an alarm 
during the day would be much smaller than could be depended 
upon at night. 

Attendants who are members of the Brigade should be 
so placed in regard to position on wards as to allow of as 
many as possible leaving on an alarm of fire ; that is, the 
bunching of firemen on wards should, if possible, be avoided. 
When this cannot be avoided there should be a system of 
relief, whereby attendants, not members of the Brigade, could 
relieve those who are. 

The Hospital Fire Brigade should consist of : — 

A Chief Marshal. 

Two Assistant Marshals. 

A?i Engineer. 

Assista?it Engineer. 

An Electrician. 

Two or more Hose Companies, of six men each. 

One Hook and Ladder Company, of ten or twelve men. 

A Chemical Company, of five or six men. 

A Life-Saving Corps. 

A Hose-Honse Janitor. 

CHIEF MARSHAL. 

The Chief of the Brigade should be chosen from the officers 
of the institution, preferably from the medical staff. This for 
several reasons: better discipline can be maintained ; a better 
opportunity is afforded a physician for becoming thoroughly 



62 THE FIRE BRIGADE. 

acquainted with all parts of the institution ; he has a better 
opportunity for instructing employes from time to time con- 
cerning matters relating to the prevention of fire, etc. 

The Chief should be active, strong, in good health, brave, 
cool-headed, and possessed of tact and judgment. If a prac- 
tical fireman be not employed to assist in the organization of 
the Brigade, the Chief would do well to familiarize himself in 
fire matters by a visit to a well-organized city fire department, 
to one already in successful operation in some other institution, 
or to both. 

As the responsibilities of the Chief are many, much au- 
thority should be vested in him, and it ought to be understood 
that at the time of a fire or drill, in matters pertaining to the 
fire or drill, the Chief of the Brigade, acting for the Superin- 
tendent, is highest in authority. If this is not done, great con- 
fusion is apt to occur, which might prove quite serious. The 
Chief should appoint the officers and members of the Brigade ; 
personally conduct the drills, and give instruction ; frequently 
examine all apparatus, and see that it is at all times in good 
working order; inspect, from time to time, every nook and 
corner of the institution, so that he may intelligently direct the 
movements of the firemen at a fire, day or night. All measures 
for the prevention of fire must be under his supervision, as well 
as the means for extinguishing it. It should be his duty, under 
the direction and with the approval of the Superintendent, to 
frame certain rules and regulations regarding the prevention 
of fire, and he should see to it that these are rigidly adhered to. 
These rules should be printed, and placed so that employes in 
general could often refer to them. This, however, is not 
enough. Each employe should be thoroughly instructed as to 
the meaning of every rule, and the Chief should, by frequent 
inspection, see that the rules do not become a dead letter. As 
much importance should attach to the prevention of fire as to 
any other part of the Chief's duties. 



ASSISTANT MARSHALS. 63 

A record should be kept by the Chief of all matters of in- 
terest in relation to the doings of the Brigade. Minutes 
should be made of all drills — giving the names of the compa- 
nies taking part, the time made, etc. Also an account of each 
fire, no matter how small, time of alarm, cause of fire, how dis- 
covered, how extinguished, damage done, etc.; irregularities 
existing, whether remedied, and how. A record of this kind 
would prove not only interesting but instructive as well. 

Upon an alarm of fire, day or night, the Chief should pro- 
ceed directly to the location of the fire, so that he may know 
exactly what is best to be done upon the arrival of the apparatus, 
as well as to be able to direct, at the earliest possible time, the 
movements of those in the vicinity of the fire. Upon the arri- 
val of the Brigade, the Chief will generally have formed his 
plans, and be able, without delay, to give the proper orders to 
his Assistants. 

After a fire, false alarm or practice, the Chief should return 
to the hose-house with the firemen, and before dismissing them 
call their attention to mistakes made, and congratulate them 
upon good work done. 

Certain signals should be decided upon between the Chief 
and his Assistants, either with whistles, or lanterns, or both. 

ASSISTANT MARSHALS. 

Even in the smaller public institutions it would be best to 
have two Assistant Marshals, for the reason that in the absence 
of one of the three there would be two left to conduct affairs 
in case of necessity. The Assistants should be chosen from 
the medical staff or Supervisor's or business departments, if 
possible. They should assist the Chief in the details of the 
management of the Brigade, and what has already been said 
concerning the duties and responsibilities of the Chief in a 
large measure applies to his Assistants, for in the absence of 
the Chief one of the Assistants must be at the head. 



64 THE FIRE BRIGADE. 

Certain special duties should be assigned to each Assistant, 
and these duties ought to be thoroughly understood by all. 

The First Assistant Marshal should go direct to the fire, 
upon an alarm, and take charge until the arrival of the Chief, and 
after that assist him in his plans and take orders from him. It 
should be his special duty, upon the arrival of the Brigade, to 
see that the different companies are properly placed without 
delay, and to direct their movements in accordance with the 
general plans of the Chief. Much confusion would result if no 
one were to meet the different companies upon their arrival. 

The Second Assistant Marshal, upon an alarm of fire, should 
go to the hose-house and take charge there. He should assist 
the Captains in forming their companies, give them the location 
of the fire, and direct them as to the best road to take. After 
doing this he should go to the fire, assist in the placing of 
companies, or report for instructions to the Chief. 

ENGINEERS. 

The Engineer of the institution should be, as well, the 
Engineer of the Fire Brigade. His duties would include the 
care of fire-hydrants and mains, the management of the engines 
and pumps in case of fire or drill, etc. On an alarm his place 
should be at the pumps. 

The E?igineers Assistant should be of the engineer's depart- 
ment, and his duties would be to assist the Engineer, or, in his 
absence, take his place. 

Special rules for the guidance of those connected with the 
engine and pump-rooms should be framed and conspicuously 
displayed. Everything about the Engineer's department that 
has to do with the furnishing of water in case of fire should be 
in such shape that the least possible amount of delay would-be 
had in giving the necessary amount of fire-pressure at a mo- 
ment's notice. 

The Engineer should frequently and regularly test fire- 



ELECTRICIAN.— HOSE COMPANIES. 65 

hydrants, winter and summer, and keep them in good repair. 
He should report to the Chief at once the fact of any hydrant 
or main being out of service, even though it be but for a few 
hours. 

ELECTRICIAN. 

The care of the electric fire-alarm should, if possible, be 
entrusted to one experienced in the handling of electrical appli- 
ances. In those institutions where the electric light, watch- 
clocks and telephones are in use, it is an easy matter to have a 
practical electrician for the fire-alarm apparatus. In the 
absence of such a person, however, some one of the staff could, 
by a little study and trouble, sufficiently familiarize himself 
with the fire-alarm system to be able to manage it and keep it 
in order. 

The Electrician should make a thorough test of the fire- 
alarm once or twice a day, at stated hours. This could best be 
done by turning in an alarm from some fire-alarm station — a 
different station or box each time. The test could be made so 
as to prevent a general alarm being sounded. After each test 
he should see that everything is in readiness for the proper 
working of the system. Any irregularities found to exist must 
be attended to at once, and if, for any reason, the system, or 
any part of it, is thrown out of service, even for a short time, 
he should report it at once to the Chief, so that other means for 
giving an alarm could be substituted without delay. 

Immediately after an alarm of fire the Electrician should 
see that the system is put in shape for another alarm ; that is, 
the indicators, drops, alarm-bell, or whistle, etc., should be 
re-set. 

HOSE COMPANIES. 

The number of hose companies to be formed will depend 
upon a variety of circumstances : the size of the institution, the 
amount of hose and number of carts in use, and the number of 



66 THE FIRE BRIGADE. 

men available. There should, however, never be less than two 
companies, even for the smaller public hospitals, while a 
greater number than four or five would not be necessary for the 
largest. 

Each company should consist of six men, as follows : 
a Captain, Lieutenant or Pipeman, a Hydrant-man, and three 
Linemen. 

Duties of Captain. — Upon the Captain of a Hose Com- 
pany depends, to a great extent, the success of the company's 
work. He should fully understand the importance and respon- 
sibility of his position, and seek not only to work well himself, 
but also to have his company know and respect him so well 
that every order he may give will be carried out quickly and will- 
ingly. Upon arriving at the hose-house, in case of an alarm, 
the Captain's first duty should be to help the Assistant Mar- 
shal, if one be present, in forming companies and starting them 
on the road. The Captain, in taking possession of a cart, 
should get his company together by calling, " This way, No. 
— ." Upon leaving the hose-house, the Captain should lead, 
either running ahead or taking his place at the head of the 
cart, and give orders which way to go and to what place. His 
orders should always be given so that they will be distinctly 
understood by the members of the company. He should never 
be afraid of speaking loud in giving orders, for in the excite- 
ment and noise, an order given in an ordinary tone of voice will 
be very likely unheard or misunderstood. Very few orders 
will be necessary in directing the movements of a well-drilled 
company. On the way to the fire the Captain should form his 
plans as far as possible, so that he may know how to direct his 
company. Upon arriving at the place of fire, if no orders are 
given from a Marshal, the Captain must use his judgment in 
deciding to which hydrant to connect, and what to do after the 
connection is made. If after laying a number of lengths of 
hose no orders are given, the Captain should leave his company, 



HOSE COMPANIES. 



67 



seek a Marshal, or find out where the fire is, and act according 
to his best judgment in directing his company what to do. In 
the absence of the Marshals, the first Captain arriving at the 
fire should take temporary charge. The Captain must direct 
all the details of the work done by his company. He should 
not confine his attention to the pipe end of the line, but be 
sure that all is well from one end to the other. Before leaving 
the hose-house, after returning from a fire or practice, the Cap- 
tain should carefully examine his cart, to make sure that every- 
thing is there and in its place, that is, that his cart is " in 
service." 

Duties of Lieutenant or Pipeman. — In the absence of 
the Captain of a hose company the Lieutenant or Pipeman 
will take charge until the arrival of the Captain, or the appoint- 
ment of one by a Marshal. He will give the pipe to another 
member of the company, if he thinks best. Immediately upon 
arriving at the hose-house the Pipeman should secure the hat 
and coat set apart for his use, put them on as quickly as pos- 
sible, and then take from the cart the pipe and a spanner. On 
the way to the fire he should run ahead of the cart to assist the 
Captain in leading the way, or in the absence of the Captain, to 
take the lead himself, except in case the company is small, or 
the roads bad, when he should take his position on one side of 
the pole of the cart. When sufficient hose is unreeled, he 
should, with the assistance of one other, connect the pipe to 
the hose, and then go to the fire where ordered. 

Duties oe Hydrant-man. — The Hydrant-man (and no 
matter how small the hose company, there must be one), upon 
leaving the hose-house, with his company, must first secure a 
hydrant wrench from the box on the cart, and then take his 
position behind the cart, ready to secure the end of the hose 
when near the hydrant to which he is to connect. After making 
the hydrant connection, he should place the wrench on the 
hydrant rod, and stand ready to turn on water when he receives 



68 THE FIRE BRIGADE. 

the order to " play away." He must remain at the hydrant 
until otherwise ordered. His position is a very important one, 
and he should be always on the lookout for orders. He must 
be especially careful not to act upon the suggestions or orders 
of outsiders. Returning from a fire or drill, he should see that 
the hydrant is left in proper shape, and be sure he takes his 
wrench with him. 

Duties of Linemen. — After reaching the hose-house, and 
taking position at one of the carts, Linemen must take the 
direction given by an officer, usually the Captain of their com- 
pany, and assist in getting the cart to the fire as quickly as 
possible. They should always pay close attention to the 
orders given by the officers, and execute them thoroughly. 
If the regular Hydrant-man is absent, one of the Linemen must 
take his place. It is the especial duty of the Linemen to 
unreel hose, carry it to any point ordered, and see that it is 
properly laid. After this their duties are generally with or 
near the pipeman. 

HOOK AND LADDER COMPANY. 

This company should be composed of ten or twelve stout 
and agile fellows. At a fire many things are to be done by the 
Ladder Company, and often several things at the same time. 
Each order should be executed quickly and smoothly. There 
must be no misunderstanding of orders, and there should be such 
a thorough understanding between officers and men as to avoid 
all confusion in the carrying out of any order that may be given. 
The exact work to be done by the Ladder Company will depend 
in each case upon the location, progress and extent of the fire. 
The raising of ladders, opening of doors and windows, tearing 
away plastering, removing partitions, flooring, and assisting in 
the saving of life, are a few of the duties a ladder man may be 
called upon to perform. Arriving at the location of the fire, 
the Captain of the Hook and Ladder Company will receive 



CHEMICAL COMPANY. 69 

instructions from one of the Marshals, and he will give such 
orders to his company as will be necessary for the execution 
of the plans of the Chief or Assistant. While taking an active 
part in the work themselves, the officers of the Ladder Com- 
pany should direct the details of what is done. 

CHEMICAL COMPANY. 

Where the portable (Babcock) hand fire extinguishers are 
used, the better arrangement would be to have four extinguish- 
ers, of six gallons capacity each, placed on the ladder truck, 
two on either side. [Fig. 10.] 

The Chemical Company should consist of a Captain, Lieu- 
tenant, and from three to five men, thoroughly drilled, and 
each made practically familiar with his work. The Captain 
must take his orders from a Marshal, if one be present, and 
direct in general the work of the company. In the absence of 
a Marshal, he must do as his judgment suggests. 

If a Chemical Engine be in service, the organizantion of the 
Chemical Company would, of course, be different from that 
above suggested. The smaller extinguishers could still be 
carried on the ladder truck, and members of the Ladder Com- 
pany be drilled in their use. The number of men necessary to 
compose a Chemical Engine Company would depend upon the 
size of the engine. If a fifty-gallon engine, five men would be 
sufficient, but for a 100-gallon engine a larger number would 
be required. 

As the early arrival at the fire of the Chemical Company 
is highly essential, the members of the company should, if 
possible, have their sleeping quarters at or near the hose-house. 

AT THE FARM. 

In those institutions where the farm buildings are quite 
a distance from the main 'structures, there should be formed, 
from among the farm employes, one or two companies, and 



70 THE FIRE BRIGADE. 

they should be supplied with a hose-cart, a few ladders, axes, 
poles, lanterns, etc., and two or more chemical extinguishers. 
The general plan of the organization of such companies 
would be essentially the same as described above. Fires are 
as liable to occur in farm buildings as elsewhere, and the 
having at hand of the means for extinguishing small fires, 
or of controlling or holding in check more serious blazes, 
pending the arrival of help, is a very desirable thing. 

LIFE-SAVING CORPS. 

The Life-Saving Corps should consist of a Captain, Lieu- 
tenant, and from five to ten members, the membership to be 
made up from the administrative orifices principally. The 
Superintendent of the institution, or one of the Assistant 
Physicians, ought to be Captain, the other members being 
physicians, the druggist, clerks, and male and female super- 
visors. 

At frequent intervals the Life-Saving Corps should inspect 
various parts of the institution, especially those where, in the 
event of fire, their services would be most needed. They 
should, at these visits, study well the means of egress 
from the wards and dormitories; make themselves familiar 
with the fire-escapes by using them ; and determine, as 
nearly as possible, as to the manner in which certain wards 
and dormitories could be emptied of patients quickly and 
safely. They should know where are located the feeble, the 
sick and the otherwise helpless patients, and as well those 
who would probably resist rescue, or in other ways cause 
trouble. Much may be done, at these inspections, in the way 
of forming general plans of action in anticipation of the 
occurrence of fire in different parts of the institution. The 
knowledge gained by the Corps at these visits will enable 
them to accomplish a great deal in a very short time, if they 
are ever called upon to attend a fire. 



JANITOR.— FIRE HATS, ETC. 71 

HOSE-HOUSE JANITOR. 

It should be the duty of the Hose-House Janitor to care 
for the apparatus; to keep it clean and in order; to see that 
the wheels of the truck and carts are regularly greased; to 
attend to the drying of hose after practice, etc. He must 
have strict orders regarding the lending of hose, wrenches, 
lanterns and other things belonging to the paraphernalia of 
the Brigade. He should also keep an inventory of everything 
connected with or belonging to the Fire Department. 

The lanterns on the truck and carts should be lighted at 
dusk and kept burning all night.' In case of an alarm of fire 
the Hose-House Janitor should open the doors and assist in 
getting the apparatus out of the house. If a member of a 
company, he must join it as it is leaving. 

FIRE HATS, RUBBER COATS, BOOTS, ETC. 

The members of the different companies should be pro- 
vided with fire-hats, rubber coats, belts and boots. The fire 
hats, coats and belts should be hung up in 'convenient places 
at the hose-house, either on racks or upon the apparatus, 
where they can be easily secured by the firemen. The boots, 
being used only at night, should be kept at the fireman's bed- 
side, with his pantaloons, coat, hat, etc. 

"BUNKERS." 

Pantaloons, drawn on over a pair of boots — either rubber 
or leather, — the former slipped down over the latter, left open 
in front, form what is known by professional firemen as 
" bunkers," a very simple but useful, convenient and time- 
saving device. [Fig. 14.] These should be set alongside of 
the bed, and upon the floor near them may be placed an old 
coat, in the pockets of which are kept a cap or hood, mittens, 
keys, a silk handkerchief, as a respirator, and a box of 



/2 



THE FIRE BRIGADE. 



matches. A few trials at getting out of bed, into the 
"bunkers," and out of the house in the dark, will prove to 
any one what an immense saving of time can be secured by 
their use. In warm weather the coat could be put on after 
leaving the house. Much time and clothing can be saved if 
each fireman would adopt such a rig and keep it handy. 




Fig. 14. "Bunkers." 









CHAPTER VI. 
DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

"A drill for an organized body is as essential as the body itself, and 
the more diversity it contains, as the members gradually become skillful, 
the less the monotony, hence an inducement to greater proficiency. It has 
been fully demonstrated that a few skilled and disciplined men are of more 
service than a host of "men untaught. To be able to perform an act, the 
fundamental principle is to know how. And to acquire that knowledge, 
assiduous study and constant practice in all the branches pertaining to the 
service is an absolute necessity." — D. J. Swenie, Chief of Chicago Fire 
Department.* 

The importance of the drilling of the Fire Brigade cannot 
be overestimated. The less actual fire duty an organization is 
called upon to do, the more drilling and practice is necessary 
in order that each member may be ready when the time for 
action comes. This is especially true where the personnel of 
the Brigade is constantly changing. It is impossible for fire- 
men to learn how to use fire-extinguishing apparatus and to 
work in harmony with each other, simply by reading, or by 
being told, or by watching others. Each fireman must have 
practical knowledge of his work, and this knowledge can only 
be secured by dint of frequent and thorough practice with the appa- 
ratus. 

If this matter of frequent drill be neglected, the Fire Brig- 
ade will without doubt become more and more inefficient, and 
it will be found, when too late, that the apparatus was not in 
order, or that the firemen did not know what to do. 

* Report National Association Fire Engineers, 1887. 



74 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

Just as soon as the Brigade is organized, a system of drill 
should be instituted that will give to each fireman as thorough 
and as practical a knowledge of his duties as possible, the 
drills being kept up throughout the year. Much attention 
must be given to the drilling of separate companies, and to 
each member thereof — at first, when the organization is new, 
and from time to time thereafter as the membership of the dif- 
ferent companies changes. At first single companies only 
should be drilled, but after a little, two or more companies may 
be drilled at the same practice, either alternately or together. 
Each fireman should become familiar with the work of every 
other member of his company, so that he could fill another's 
place upon a moment's notice. 

Contests. — An occasional friendly contest between the 
different Hose Companies should be encouraged. Instead of 
contests, the Ladder Company could have an occasional trial 
of speed, competing against former records made. Sugges- 
tions as to these contests will be found under the appropriate 
headings farther along in this chapter. 

Smudge Fires. — -It is of the greatest importance that fire- 
men should become more or less accustomed to working in a 
smoky atmosphere, for no matter how well drilled they are in 
handling apparatus, they would find it very difficult to do their 
work properly at a fire were it necessary for them to inhale, for 
the first time, hot stifling smoke. It is suggested, then, that 
smudge fire drills, as hereinafter described, be occasionally had. 

False Alarms. — Once in six weeks, or oftener, a false 
alarm should be sounded. Besides being an excellent way in 
which to test the efficiency of the Brigade in the matter of 
responding to an alarm, it is the very best method in which to 
prevent the occurrence of a panic among patients and others 
when there really is a fire. They soon become accustomed to 
hearing the alarm and seeing the firemen at work, and pay no 
more than ordinary attention to what is going on. It can very 






OBEDIENCE TO ORDERS. 75 

readily be seen of what inestimable advantage this fact would 
be in case of fire. The firemen also are benefited by these false 
alarms. Ignorant that the alarm is false, they respond as in 
the case of fire. It accustoms them to being called without 
previous warning, night or day, and gives them, in a general 
way, actual fire practice. It gives the officers of the Brigade 
an opportunity for watching for and correcting mistakes made 
by individuals or companies, and for knowing what could be 
expected of the Brigade at a fire. The false-alarm drill can be 
so conducted, generally, that the firemen need not know, until 
the drill is over, that they were not in attendance upon a gen- 
uine fire. ■■<. 

Obedience to Orders. — What is said in regard to the 
necessity of firemen obeying the orders given them by the 
proper officers at a fire applies with equal force to their so doing 
at drills. Poor discipline at a drill means poor discipline at a 
fire. If the habit of obeying orders be well formed at practice, 
then there need be no fear of plans miscarrying at a fire on 
account of disobedience or tardy compliance. 

Vocabulary. — Members of the Brigade should familiarize 
themselves with the meaning of the expressions employed by 
the officers in giving directions. Following is a partial list of 
the more common phrases used, with a few words in explana- 
tion of each : 

" This Way, ." — This order is always followed by the 

name of the company or individual addressed, and means that 
said company or individual is to approach or follow the officer 
giving the command. 

"Lead in" "Up" "Down;' "Forward" "to Right" or "to 
Left" indicates the place and direction in which it is desired a 
company is to go, with apparatus, the order being followed 
by the name of the company, as well as by the place or dis- 
tance it is intended the company is to go. 



y6 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

"Light Up on that Hose" is generally an order from the 
fipeman to the Linemen to get the hose forward. 

"Play Away" is ordered by an officer to a Hose Company 
when water is wanted and everything is in readiness for it. It 
ds the signal for the Hydrant-man to turn on water. It is also 
the proper order When a stream from an extinguisher is wanted. 

" Shut Down" — This means, for a Hose Company, that water 
is to be turned off at the hydrant ; for the Chemical Company, 
that the stream is to be turned off at the nozzle. 

"Back Out" — This order is given to a company when it is 
desired that the company is to back out of or retreat from a 
room or building. The retreat should be made in good form, 
but at once. Unless otherwise ordered, the apparatus, hose, 
extinguishers, etc., should be taken along. 

"Back Down." — This order is similar to the above, except 
that it applies to backing down a ladder or retreating down 
stairs. 

u Take Up." — This is usually given after the fire is extin- 
guished, and means, literally, to prepare to return to quarters. 

' Disconnect^ — -This order is given to the Hydrant-man just 
before a Hose Company commences to reel hose in " taking up." 

"Go Home." — The companies designated, upon receiving 
this order, return to the hose-house. 

The Drills. — A careful study of and frequent reference 
to the drills now about to be described, will, it is hoped, enable 
the inexperienced members of the newly organized Brigade to 
become skillful in the handling of the apparatus. Each step is 
described somewhat in detail, for the reason that nearly all of 
the members of hospital fire organizations will have had but 
little if any experience, and that with some such guide the 
work will be made much easier than were they to attempt to 
-work out the details without it. It is intended that these drills, 
taken collectively, will cover, as nearly as possible, the more 



HOSE COMPANY DRILLS, 



77 



important steps in the fighting of fire. These being mastered, 
modifications of each will be suggested in the minds of the 
officers. 

Where previous notice of a drill is given, firemen should! 
put on their " bunkers," for the purpose of saving their clothing 
from wear and tear and dirt. 




Fig. is. Cart "in Service." 



HOSE COMPANY DRILLS. 

General Considerations. — The following Hose Com- 
pany drills are planned upon the supposition that the carts 
have reeled upon them 250 feet of hose, and are well supplied 
with wrenches, spanners and hose-straps. Each one of the 
drills may be modified as to the number of feet of hose laid, 
distance run, etc., but as a general thing 250 feet of hose should 
be used. In the drills where water is used fire-pressure should 
be put on. 

The washing of windows and sprinkling of lawns is very 
good practice during the summer months, in addition to the 
regular drills. Firemen thus become accustomed to handling 
hose and pipe while pressure is on. 



;8 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

Laying of Hose. — Hose should be unreeled in as direct a 
line as possible from the hydrant to a point opposite the door 
or window to be entered, or ladder to be climbed. The cart 
must not be taken beyond this point, but as much more hose 
as is needed unreeled. As the couplings drop to the ground 
they are liable to become indented by striking upon stones or 
other hard substances ; this must be borne in mind, and in 
laying hose over stony ground or hard pavements, linemen 
.should try and have the coupling fall easily. A slight dent 
in a coupling is sufficient to impair seriously its usefulness. 

Sharp turns should be avoided, as when water is forced 
through the hose a kink will form at the turn and either burst 
the hose or weaken it very much. Short turns also interfere 
with the free flow of the water, by increasing the friction. 
In going through doorways, halls, and up stairways, where 
turns are frequently necessary, the widest possible curve 
must be given the hose. In passing hose over window-sills 
a sharp bend is liable to occur unless care be taken to prevent 
it. The same careful attention to this matter is necessary 
in manipulating hose, changing its position, etc., after water 
has been turned on. In carrying hose up ladders the hose- 
strap must be used to secure the hose to the ladder, 
especially near the top, if the hose is laid so far; if not, 
as near the pipe as possible. The strap, looped about the 
hose and hooked upon a ladder-rung, will support consider- 
able weight. The hose must lie upon the rungs midway 
between the sides of the ladder. The most usual point for 
hose to give way is just behind the coupling to which the pipe 
is connected. This is because of the sharp bend given to the 
hose at this place in practice, both wet and dry. In laying the 
pipe down for any purpose, as is often done during drills, it 
should be placed so that a kink or sharp bend will not form 
behind the coupling. This sharp bending of the hose in one 
place many times will very soon crack the rubber lining, and 



• HOSE COMPANY DRILLS. 79 

it is not long then before the hose must be cut down. Care in 
this respect will save hose for years that carelessness might 
ruin in a few weeks. 

Sometimes it may be desirable or necessary to have a 
lead of hose in a fourth or fifth story, or upon the roof, where 
it is not convenient or possible to have it taken by stairs or 
ladders'. In such a case the rope carried for this purpose on 
the ladder truck should be used. The pipeman and another 
should take the coil of rope to the place where the lead is 
desired, retain one end of the rope, and throw the other to the 
firemen below, who fasten it to the hose, and it is drawn up. 

Making and Breaking Connections. — Great care is neces- 
sary, in coupling together two lengths of hose, in coupling 
hose to hydrant, or pipe to hose, to avoid crossing the thread. 
The male coupling should be held firmly while the female 
coupling is being fitted and turned into place. A very slight 
turn of the female coupling to the left, until it has caught the 
proper thread, is a very good thing. Then by making two or 
three full turns to the right the connection is completed. 

In order to make a firmer connection than this, it may 
be necessary to use spanners, one being fitted to each coup- 
ling, in such manner as to exert force in opposite directions. 
While the spanner on the male coupling is held firmly, the 
other is turned to the right. In breaking connection this 
manner of procedure is reversed. 

The Pipe and Nozzle. — Only the ordinary play-pipe and 
nozzle should be used, unless an exception be made in favor of 
the spray nozzle, which is of use in fighting a very smoky fire at 
close range. Shut-off nozzles would prove a source of danger 
in other than experienced hands. The one important rule for 
the pipeman to bear in mind, in the use of the pipe, whether 
water is being used or not, is to keep the pipe in as straight a line 
with the hose as possible. 

Taking Up. — The pipe having been removed, and the 



80 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

connection at the hydrant broken, the hose is ready for reeling 
upon the cart. It is important that the connection at the 
hydrant be broken first, in order that the water remaining in 
the hose may find a ready escape as it is forced along during 
the process of reeling. With the ordinary village cart it will 
require four men to reel the hose properly. 

The cart is backed up to the pipe end of the line of hose. 
The fireman whose duty it is to guide the hose as it is being 
reeled, standing behind the cart, the hose to his right, secures 
the end of the hose to the reel within a foot of the wheel on 
the right. This can be done by tying about the reel a stout 
cord or leather strap, the ends being left long enough to allow 
of being passed around the hose behind the coupling, and 
tied into a bow-knot. Securing the hose to the reel in this way 
is to prevent the too sudden coming off of the coupling in 
unreeling rapidly, this being especially likely to occur where 
there is no brake-attachment. Having fastened the hose in 
this manner, the reel is turned forward by two firemen, one on 
each side of the pole, in front. The fireman guiding the cart 
pushes slowly backward along the line of hose. The fireman 
who guides the hose upon the reel should strive to have it lie 
even and close. He must hold it firmly as it is being reeled, 
winding it from side to side, never allowing it to twist nor to 
hang loose. While greater care is ?iecessary in reeling dry hose 
than when it has been wet, as the latter, on most occasions, 
will be taken from the cart at the hose-house, still, the best 
plan would be to reel hose always in the most careful manner. 
The tighter and smoother hose is reeled the better will it unreel. 
After the hose is all reeled, the reel must be made stationary, 
the end of the hose hanging over the back of the cart. A 
hose-strap fastened to the cross-bar of the cart in front, and 
another to the bar behind, the other end of each strap being 
caught upon spokes of the reel, will hold it firmly in place. 

The Care of Hose. — If allowed to remain upon the cart, 



HOSE DRILL NO. I. 81 

wet hose (cotton) is liable to become quickly damaged. For 
this reason wet hose should be removed from the cart as soon 
as it is returned to the hose-house, and dry hose substituted. 
In making this change, the requisite number of lengths of dry 
hose should be first gotten ready, the couplings and washers 
examined, and the threads treated with a very little tallow or 
mineral oil. The wet hose is then unreeled, the couplings 
being broken, or disconnected, as each length comes off. The 
wet hose is placed at one side, and the dry hose reeled on. 
The male coupling or nozzle end of a length of hose is fasten- 
ened to the reel, and the hose is wound snugly into place. 
Another length is brought, connected with the first by at least 
three turns; this in turn is reeled up, and the remainder rs 
treated in the same manner. The cart being made ready for 
service, the wet hose is hung up in the tower or laid upon 
racks, to dry. In cold weather the drying should be hurried by 
admitting hot air to the tower. If the hose is dirty it should 
be brushed off with a broom after drying. Then it should 
be lowered from the tower, and laid, either in coils or at full 
length, upon racks provided for this purpose, where it can be 
gotten at more quickly, if needed, than if left in the tower. It 
is well to change hose that has remained on the reel more than 
three or four weeks, substituting for it that which has been 
exposed to the* air. In winter the hose should be kept warm. 
The foregoing applies to the care of cotton rubber-lined hose. 

HOSE DRILL NO. I. 

Run ioo yards to hydrant, connect, lay 250 feet of hose, attach pipe. " Take 
up." 

This drill should be repeated several times, very slowly at 
first, so that each step may be thoroughly learned. After the 
general order is given by the Chief to the Captain, the latter 
is to give all the orders as to the details of the work. At 
the starting point, 100 yards from the hydrant, the firemen 



82 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

should be in the following positions : The Captain a little in 
advance; the pipeman alongside the cartj pipe in hand, two 
linemen at the pole ; one lineman and the hydrant-man behind, 
to push, the latter, hydrant-wrench in hand, standing nearest to 
the side' next the hydrant. When within fifty feet of the hy- 
drant the hydrant-man begins to unreel hose, keeping hold 
near the end, at the same time moving towards the hydrant. 
As the cart passes the hydrant, he will take one turn and a half 
about it with the hose, placing his foot upon it, that it may not be 
pulled away from him by the others. The cap of the hydrant 
is how removed, and by the time this is done he may safely re- 
move the hose from about the hydrant and make the connec- 
tion, attaching the hose coupling to the hydrant by at least 
three turns. The wrench, which is a combined spanner and 
wrench, is then fixed upon the hydrant-rod, the hose is given a 
good free curve, to avoid kinking, and the hydrant-man is then 
ready to turn on water if the order to "play away" be given. 
The others, running with the cart, do not stop at the hydrant, 
unless the hydrant-man fails to secure the hose about the hy- 
drant. After passing this point the pipeman takes his place 
•behind the cart. The lineman behind must see that as the 
hose is unreeled, the couplings do not strike heavily upon 
stones or concrete walks. As the last length is playing out, the 
runners must slow up, stopping the cart before the last fifteen 
feet are unreeled. The lineman at the rear takes the end of 
the hose as it comes from the cart, after it is released from the 
reel, and the others take the cart to one side. The rear line- 
man then straddles the hose, holding the coupling firmly in 
both hands, while the pipeman attaches the pipe, taking at least 
three turns, either with his hands alone or by the aid of a 
spanner. 

This completes the first part of the drill. The hydrant- 
man should be in position, ready to turn on water, by the time 
the pipe is in place. No water is to be used in this drill, how- 



HOSE DRILLS NOS. II. AND III. 83 

ever. After a moment's rest, during which the Chief should 
call attention to mistakes made, the order to "take up" should 
be given. This must be done as previously described. 

HOSE DRILL NO. II. 

Same as first part of No. I; then, break and make all connections , including 

pipe and hydrant. 

After laying 250 feet of hose, as in Drill No. I., the pipe is 
placed upon the ground. Two men are selected to break and 
make all connections, which they will proceed to do as follows: 
while one straddles the hose facing the pipe end, holding the 
male coupling firmly in both hands, the other, facing the 
hydrant end, breaks the connection by turning the pipe to the 
left, using a spanner, if necessary, for the first turn or two. 
Dropping the pipe and hose to the ground, the men proceed to 
the next coupling, where the same positions are taken and the 
connection broken in the same manner. Each connection is 
broken in this way until the hydrant is reached. One fireman 
will disconnect, with spanner, the hose from the hydrant. 
The other fireman now makes the connection, with spanner, 
and they proceed to make connection at couplings, taking the 
same position as in breaking. Three full turns should be 
taken. The same two should then go over the drill once more, 
reversing positions. In this manner all the members of the 
company should make the drill. 

HOSE DRILL NO. III. 

Run 100 yards to hydrant, connect, lay 250 feet of hose, attach pipe, taking 
hose into building. ' ' Back out. " " Take up." 
Instead of laying the hose in a straight line for 250 feet, 
the cart must be taken only as far as a point opposite where it is 
intended the building is to be entered. The balance of the hose is 
unreeled at this point, the pipe attached, and the hose or lead 
is carried into the building. The pipeman leads the way, 



84 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

holding the pipe in such manner as to prevent a sharp bend in 
the hose behind the coupling. The hose may be thrown about 
his shoulders in such a way as to prevent this kinking, as well 
as to give him a better purchase upon the hose in going for- 
ward. A lineman should follow the pipeman not further than 
ten or twelve feet, the hose being carried by the side or 
thrown over a shoulder. The other two linemen should 
follow, at a greater or less distance apart, according to the 
amount of hose to be carried in. The linemen should not only 
assist in carrying the hose, but endeavor to keep it straight- 
ened out, to make it lighter for those in the lead, prevent 
sharp turns about door-ways, stair-casings and the like, and to 
have the hose laid in such shape that it will be ready for 
water by the time the pipeman is in position. After this the 
lineman next the pipeman goes forward to assist with the pipe, 
the others remaining along the line to be ready to pass the 
order to the hydrant-man to " play away," if such order be 
given. This order will not be given in this drill, however. 
The order to " take up " being now given by the chief, the 
Captain shall first order the company to " back out." The 
hose is taken out of the building in about the same manner in 
which it was carried in, and the pipe removed. The order to 
" disconnect at hydrant" is given at the same time. The hose 
is then reeled in the manner already described. 

In this drill a new point should be selected for each 
practice, and different buildings, and various parts of each 
building entered — basements, the various floors, attics, — in 
fact, wherever the 250 feet of hose will reach, without the use 
of ladders. 

HOSE DRILL NO. IV. 

Run 100 yards to hydrant, connect, lay 250 feet of hose , attach pipe, take lead 
up ladder to second or third-story window or to roof. " Back down.' 1 '' 
" Take up." 
This drill should be practiced at the time the Ladder 



HOSE DRILLS NOS. IV. AND V. 85 

Company is having its Drill No. II. The steps of the drill are 
the same as in No. III. until after the pipe is attached, the 
cart, of course, being taken only as far as a point opposite the 
ladder, the remainder of the hose being unreeled at that place. 
The pipeman, throwing the hose over his shoulder, proceeds to 
climb the ladder. A lineman must follow close upon the pipe- 
man, to relieve him of as much weight of hose as possible. 
The other linemen assist in getting the hose up the ladder, 
their positions depending upon the length of ladder, and 
whether the hose is to be taken part way up, or to the roof. 
The same careful attention in regard to avoiding sharp turns, 
kinks, etc., is as necessary here as in No. III. In any case, 
the hose must be secured to the ladder by a hose-strap, not far 
behind the pipeman, if he is to remain upon the ladder. If he 
takes the lead of hose upon the roof, the strap is to be used 
near the top of the ladder. When there is an excess of hose at 
the foot of the ladder, it must be laid about in easy curves, so 
as to cause the least amount of resistance to the flow of water. 
A lineman should always remain very close to the pipeman to 
lend assistance in holding the pipe when water is used, no 
matter where he may be stationed. The remainder of this 
drill needs no explanation, provided the Company is familiar 
with No. III. 

In climbing a ladder, hosemen should remember to grasp 
the sides of the ladder, the feet being placed upon the outer 
extremities of the rung. 

HOSE DRILL NO. V. 

Two companies— two carts. First Company — Run 75 yards to hydrant, 

connect, lay 250 feet of hose, couple to second Co?npany's hose. Second 

Company — Run ?j yards from hydrant, lay 250 feet of hose, attach 

pipe. " Take up." 

The two companies start at the same time, one (which for 

convenience sake we will designate No. 1) from a point 75 



86 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

yards on one side of the hydrant, the other (No. 2) from a 
point 75 yards the other side. No. 1 runs 75 yards, connects 
to hydrant, and lays 250 feet of hose in the same manner as for 
Drill No. I. Instead of attaching the pipe, however, the pipe- 
man or a lineman assists the hydrant-man of No 2 in connect- 
ing the two leads of hose. After running 75 yards, No. 2 
commences to unreel, the hydrant-man remaining to assist in 
connecting with No. 1. The 250 feet of hose being laid, No. 2 
finishes by attaching the pipe. The three attachments, hydrant, 
middle coupling, and pipe, should be finished at about the same 
time. In " taking up, " the order of procedure should be the 
same as for single company drills, each company working for 

itself. 

HOSE DRILL NO. VI. 

Same as Drill No. I., with water at fire pressure. 

This drill, and those following, are useful in accustoming 

the firemen to handle hose and pipe while water is flowing 

at fire pressure. The order to " play away " is given as soon as 

the pipeman is in position. In "taking up," the order to "shut 

down " is first given, followed by the order, " disconnect at 

hydrant." 

HOSE DRILL NO. VII. 

Same as Drill No. IV., with water at fire pressure. 

In this drill the stream is to be directed away from the 
building — the reverse of what would be necessary in case of 
actual fire. In directing the stream from a position upon the 
ladder, the pipeman must be sure the hose is properly sup- 
ported by hose-straps, and that a lineman is at hand to assist 
him. No attempt should be made to go up or down ladders 
with a stream on, except for a few rounds, or when it is abso- 
lutely necessary. 

HOSE DRILL NO. VIII. 

Same as Drill No. Ill, with " smudge" fire. 

After laying the hose, as in No. III., the lead is carried 



LADDER COMPANY DRILLS. 87 

into~a-fire=praof basement, where a "smudge'' -fire has 'pre- 
viously been prepared. This can better be done while the 
Ladder and Chemical Companies are having a similar drill. 
No water is to be used, the Chemical Company being sufficient 
to extinguish the fire. The " smudge " will be described under 
Chemical Drill No. IV. 

LADDER COMPANY DRILLS. 

General Considerations. — The suggestions and drills 
here given are intended for a company consisting of ten or 
twelve men, the truck equipped with ladders about as follows : 
One 36-ft. extension; one 26-ft. extension; one 22-ft. single; one 
12-ft. roof ladder. In addition the truck is supposed to be pro- 
vided with two axes, two pike-poles, etc. 

It is of the greatest importance that each truckman should 
be able to take any position in raising or lowering any of the 
ladders. For this reason a few simple drills, in which each 
truckman may learn to do thoroughly any portion of the work 
usually required at a fire, are greatly to be preferred to fancy 
maneuvers, where each man perfects himself in but one or two 
duties. After each drill, upon returning to the hose-house, 
the truck and its equipment should be examined carefully to 
see that everything is in perfect order. In climbing a ladder 
the hands should grasp the sides, the body thrown back some- 
; what, and the feet placed upon the rungs near the sides. As 
the extension ladders lie upon the truck, the foot at the rear 
end, the smaller ladder occupies a position above the larger. 
The ladders should be known by their size, and when a ladder 
is called for the officer should designate it as "36-ft. exten- 
sion," " 26-ft. extension," or whatever it might be. 

After the Ladder Company becomes proficient in the more 
common though necessary maneuvers, other drills, modifications 
of those here given, may be practiced, the character of the drills 



88 



DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 







0\ 

bi> 






bJO 



be 



** 



LADDER DRILL NO. I. 89 

depending upon the peculiarities of construction of the various 
buildings. 

Raising and Lowering of Ladders. — Ordinarily it will 
require four men to raise and lower the 36-ft. extension ladder; 
three for the 26-ft. extension, and three for the 22-ft. single, 
though if necessary three could raise and lower the first, and 
two the last named. One man is all that will be necessary to 
manage the 12-ft. ladder. 

Ladders must be firmly set, and at a proper distance from 
the building, neither too near nor too far away. 

Use of Axes, Pike-Poles, and Crow-Bar. — Where axes 
and poles are carried about, great care must be observed in 
handling them, for by dropping an axe or pole while on the lad- 
der or roof, or by swinging an axe carelessly, a truckman is very 
liable to injure some one seriously. Axes and poles are very 
necessary, sometimes, at fires, for exposing hidden fires in 
walls, ceilings, floors, etc., and although they cannot be used in 
this capacity at drills, truckmen should become accustomed 
to carrying them about. 

The crow-bar will be useful in forcing off guards, and in 
prying up timbers, where necessary. 

LADDER DRILL NO. I. 

Raising a7id lowering all ladders and climbing to top. 

It is the purpose of this drill to make each member of the 
Ladder Company thoroughly and practically familiar with every 
detail in the raising and lowering of all the ladders. When the 
Company is first organized, and from time to time afterwards, 
this drill should be practiced, slowly and deliberately. It will 
not be possible to complete the drill at one practice, nor possi- 
bly at two. 

The truck having been drawn by the company to a point 
about seventy-five feet in front of some building, and the pin 



90 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

confining the ladders withdrawn, the drill will be conducted as 
follows: 

Thirty-six-foot Extension — First Step. — Four men go to the 
rear of the truck; Nos. I and 2 take the ladder at the foot and 
pull it from the truck, Nos. 3 and 4 receiving the other end. 
The ladder is carried to the place designated, and laid upon 
the ground, about four feet from and parallel to the front of the 
building, the foot of the ladder resting opposite the point at 
which the ladder is to be raised. The two ladders which form 
the extension should occupy the same relative position they 
had while on the truck — that is, the smaller ladder on top. 
[Fig. 16.] 

Second Step. — No. 1 remains at the foot of the ladder to 
foot it; Nos. 3 and 4 pull out the smaller ladder until the 
" dogs " reach the third or fourth rung from the top of the larger 
ladder, the "dogs" being set by No. 2. [Fig. 17.] 

Third Step. — No. 1 foots the ladder by placing a foot on 
the upper part of each ladder-foot, heels resting on the ground, 
hands grasping second rung of ladder, or the sides opposite 
second rung. Nos. 3 and 4 advance about fifteen feet, take 
hold of the sides of the ladder, and with one motion raise it 
above their heads. No. 2 steps in between them to assist, and 
the ladder is raised to a perpendicular by all three walking 
forward. [Fig. 18.] 

Fourth Step. — The foot of the ladder which is fmthest from 
the building is now raised sufficiently to clear the ground, and 
the ladder is given a quarter turn toward the building. [Fig. 
19.] The ladder is then allowed to rest in place against the 
building, and No. 1 will climb to the top. 

In lowering the ladder and returning it to the truck the 
order of procedure is reversed. The ladder is raised to a per- 
pendicular, the same leg as before raised slightly, the ladder 
given a quarter turn outwards. No. 1 foots the ladder, Nos. 2, 
3 and 4 take positions beneath it, and by backing up slowly, 



LADDER DRILL NO. II. 91 

lower. When within fifteen feet of the end of the ladder they 
step from under and the ladder is lowered to the ground. Nos. 
3 and 4 raise the "dogs," holding them away while sliding the 
smaller ladder into place. No. 2 assists in this by pushing the 
smaller ladder from the end. The ladder is then returned to 
the truck. 

Repeat four times, with the same men in different posi- 
tions each time, in order that each one of the four may become 
familiar with each part of the work. Another set of four then 
go through the drill four times, and this is done until all the 
members of the company have taken part. 

Twe?ity-six-foot Extension. — With some slight changes in 
the disposition of the men, the steps for raising and lowering 
the 26-ft. extension are essentially the same as given for 
the 36-ft. extension. Leave out No. 2 in the above and 
there will be no trouble experienced in following the different 
steps. 

Twenty-two- foot Ladder. — This ladder is raised and lowered 
in the same manner as described above for the others, with the 
exception that there is no extension. 

The reason for raising the ladder leg farthest from the 
building is this : in the event of the firemen losing control of 
the ladder while in this unstable condition, it would fall against 
the house, and thus could be righted much more easily than if 
it fell into the road. 

LADDER DRILL NO. II. 

Run 130 yards, raise ladders > carry axes and poles to top. " Take up." 

At starting, the Captain should be alongside of the men at 
the head, or a little in advance ; there should be two men at 
the pole, the rest in pairs at the drag-rope. The drill should 
be made quite slowly at first, the speed to be increased a little 
each time. The order to "halt" should be given by the 
Captain as the truck arrives opposite the point selected for 



92 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

practice. The two men at the pole pull back, while those at 
the drag-rope drop it and proceed to take out the ladders as 
directed by the Captain, who has by this time removed the 
pin holding the ladders in place. The ladders should be re- 
moved in regular order, from top to bottom. The Captain 
receiving his orders from a Marshal as to where each ladder is 
to be placed, directs the men accordingly, and the ladders are 
raised in the manner described in Drill No. I. The men who 
can be spared first are sent back to the truck for axes and 
poles, and with these they ascend to the top of the ladders 
designated by the Captain. If there is an opportunity for 
using the roof or 12-foot ladder, that also should be sent for. 

At the order " take up," all ladders should be lowered and 
returned to the truck, axes and poles replaced, and the ladders 
secured by the center pin. 

This drill should be repeated three or four times at one 
practice. 

LADDER DRILL NO. III. 

Run 100 yards, enter base?nent with axes, poles and lanterns. " Smudge " 
fire. 

This drill is practised in connection with Chemical Drill 
No. IV, with a " smudge " fire. After running 100 yards, and 
the truck is stopped opposite the building, the company is 
ordered into the basement with axes and poles. The Captain 
and Lieutenant each take a lantern, which should be lighted 
either before or after entering the basement. The truckmen 
should move about carefully, stooping low to avoid as much 
as possible the inhalation of smoke. The first duty of truck- 
men is to open windows to allow of the escape of smoke. 
Those with axes and poles should assist in looking for the fire, 
and after it is found to use axes and poles as thought best by 
officers. The twelve-foot ladder could be used to advantage if 
the windows of the basement are high. After the fire has 



CHEMICAL COMPANY DRILLS. 



93 



been extinguished by the Chemical Company, the debris 
should be removed, and the place carefully examined for 
smouldering embers. t 

CHEMICAL COMPANY DRILLS. 

General Considerations. — In the following drills of the 
Chemical Company each member must pay the closest atten- 
tion to all of the details in the care and management of the 
extinguisher. It is quite essential that he master each point in 
connection with the charging, or filling, of the extinguisher, 
as well as in the discharging of the same. A very large pro- 
portion of all fires occurring in hospitals may be extinguished 
by the proper use of chemical extinguishers, but if improperly 
used they certainly cannot be expected to do more than other 
apparatus improperly used. 

The extinguishers on the truck, as well as those placed in 
different parts of the institution, should be frequently exam- 
ined and kept in good condition. The top should be un- 
screwed and carefully raised to determine the condition of 
the bottle and of the solution in the tank. The threads of 
the top should be lubricated with a very little mineral oil, 
and the top screwed down tightly. The hose should be 
tested as to its perviousness by blowing through it while 
the top is off. The stop-cock should be kept from rusting 
by the occasional application of a little mineral oil. The 
hose must be carefully examined for fractures or fissures, 
which are especially liable to occur near its junction with 
the tank. If there is any danger of the fluid freezing, 
owing to severe weather and an exposed position, it would 
be well to throw into it a handful of common salt. By 
paying careful attention to these small but important points 
in the care of the extinguisher, it will last for many years, 
and be always ready for use. There should always be kept 



94. DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

on hand an extra supply of chemical charges, so that there 
will be no delay in re-charging an extinguisher that has 
been used. After eath run, whether the extinguishers have 
been handled or not, they must be carefully inspected. 

Charging and Re-charging Extinguishers, — To avoid 
the possibility of dirt getting into the solution, in filling an 
extinguisher a fine strainer should be provided, through which 
the solution could be passed into the tank. The bicarbonate 
of sodium may be emptied into the strainer, which is held 
over the mouth of the extinguisher, and water sufficient to 
fill the tank to within four inches of the top passed through. 
The bottle of acid, being carefully removed from its saw- 
dust bed, is first rinsed clear of saw-dust, and then placed in 
the bottle-holder, which is in connection with the top of the 
extinguisher, the wheel having first been given a few turns to 
the left. 

Great care is necessary in handling the bottle, as it will 
break easily, and the sulphuric acid will quickly destroy 
whatever it comes in contact with. After the base of the 
bottle is placed in the cup of the holder [Fig. I, p. 21], the 
cap which fits over the head of the bottle is raised, the 
bottle brought under it, and the cap lowered over the head. 
The spring will hold it in place. The wheel on top is now 
slowly turned to the right until there is about an eighth of 
an inch space between the top of the bottle and the firm 
portion of the cap. The bottle will now be secure, and still 
loose enough so that any accidental slight turning of the 
wheel, or any sudden jar the extinguisher might receive, 
would not cause the bottle to break. The top is now lifted 
by the two arms, the bottle suspended in the solution, and 
the top screwed very firmly into place, the threads having 
been first treated with a little oil, and the washer seen to 
be in good condition. A piece of easily broken string or 



CHEMICAL COMPANY DRILLS. 95 

twine is now passed through the wheel and about one of 
the arms, and snugly tied. This is simply to prevent the 
wheel from being turned either one way or the other with- 
out some force being used. The string or twine should not 
be so stout but that it can be easily broken by a sharp 
turn of the wheel. The stop-cock being closed, the hose is 
wound carefully and securely, though not too tightly, about 
the top of the extinguisher, being held in place by the aid 
of a quickly detached fastener. A leather strap, fastened 
about the neck of the extinguisher, with free ends of suf- 
ficient length to tie in a bow-knot about the coil of hose, 
will answer very well. 

The stop-cock must be kept closed, and in arranging and 
securing the hose the nozzle must be placed upon a little higher 
level than the solution in the tank. Attention to these important 
points will prevent the possibility of an accident that might 
prove somewhat embarrassing. If the stop-cock is open, 
and the nozzle hangs lower than the level of the fluid in 
the tank, there is danger that by siphonage more or less of 
the fluid will run out, the amount depending upon the posi- 
tion of the nozzle. This of course would not invariably 
occur, but the danger is great enough to warrant the care 
and attention suggested. 

After the extinguisher has been used, the only thing neces- 
sary to do to re-charge it, in addition to the above, would be 
first to wash out thoroughly the tank, making sure that all of 
the broken glass has been removed. Before removing the top, 
however, the stop-cock must be opened, to allow the escape of 
any gas that may remain. In removing the top the fireman 
should not hold his head directly over the extinguisher. It is 
possible that enough gas may remain to lift the top of the 
extinguisher, with considerable force, several feet. This rarely 
occurs, but the writer has seen such an accident, the result 
being a broken nose. 



96 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

CHEMICAL DRILL NO I. 

Unstrap extinguisher, shoulder, carry, lower, run out hose ; wind hose, 
shoulder extinguisher, carry, place on truck, strap. 

This and the drill following, though especially designed 
for the instruction of new members, should be participated in 
on each occasion by the whole company. The Chemical Com- 
pany, together with the Marshals, having assembled at the 
hose-house, the Chief Marshal or one of the assistants should 
begin the drill or demonstration by explaining to the company 
the manner in which the extinguishers are secured to the truck; 
the positions to be taken by the members of the company in 
going to a fire; the way in which the extinguishers are released 
from the truck, and how shouldered and carried. After this is 
done, the demonstrator should go slowly through the following 
drill, explaining each step thoroughly. The members of the 
company in turn repeat the drill. 

Facing forward toward the front of the truck, one hand rest- 
ing on the extinguisher or near it, as in the act of pushing on 
the way to a fire, the fireman unbuckles the strap that holds the 
extinguisher in place. Then, lifting it slightly, so that it may 
clear the rim into which it is set, he tilts the extinguisher for- 
ward, the left shoulder being placed a little below its center. 
Both hands now grasp the extinguisher near the bottom, and by 
assuming the erect posture the machine is very easily balanced 
upon the shoulder. One hand (the left) can now steady it in its 
place, the right being free to open doors, etc. After walking 
about a moment or two, the extinguisher is placed upon the floor. 
This is quickly and easily done by grasping the bottom with 
the right hand, while the extinguisher is allowed to slip for- 
ward and downward into the bend of the left arm, and from 
there is lowered to the floor. After this is done the little 
strap or string holding the hose in place is unfastened, the hose 
unwound, the stop-cock opened, and the fireman moves away 
as far as the hose will allow. (Of course in this drill the 



CHEMICAL DRILL NO. II. 97 

breaking of the bottle must be omitted). Reversing now the 
order of procedure, the stop-cock is closed, the hose carefully 
coiled, hung about the neck of the extinguisher, fastened there 
by the small strap or cord, and the extinguisher shouldered. 
This is accomplished by tilting it towards the left, the left hand 
supporting it near the top while the right hand seizes the rim 
at the bottom, and then by a quick lift throwing it upon the 
left shoulder. In carrying or lifting the extinguisher, the 
wheel on top must never be taken hold of. 

This drill should be practiced until each fireman is per- 
fectly familiar with the different steps. 

CHEMICAL DRILL NO. II. 

A practical de?nonstratioti of the workings of the extinguisher. 

For this drill the Company should meet at the hose-house. 
The first part of the drill should consist of a lecture by the 
Chief Marshal, or one of the assistants, upon the use of the 
extinguisher, together with a demonstration of each step 
taken in charging, discharging and re-charging the same. 
Upon a table is placed an empty extinguisher, with hose 
attached ; alongside is placed the top of the extinguisher, the 
box of acid charges and a can of the bi-carbonate of sodium. 
Near at hand should be pails with water sufficient to fill the 
tank. The extinguisher is first shown, the manner in which 
the hose is attached explained, as well as the way in which 
fluid and gas are forced into the hose. Next the top must 
receive attention, and everv detail of the mechanism of the 
bottle-holder thoroughly explained. During this demonstra- 
tion each member of the company should take hold of the 
articles and examine for himself. The nature of the acid 
and alkali must be explained, and what the result of a mixt- 
ure of the acid with a solution of the alkali would be. At- 
tention must be called to the weak point in the acid bottle. 
After the different parts of the apparatus are shown and 



98 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

are thoroughly understood, the demonstrator should then 
proceed to "charge" the extinguisher slowly as described 
above, explaining each step as he proceeds. The extin- 
guisher being now ready for use, it is placed upon the truck, 
and is ready for the second part of the drill. 

A good-sized pile of boxes and barrels having been pre- 
viously arranged near the hose-house, the demonstrator 
shoulders an extinguisher and proceeds to this pile with the 
members of the company following. The pile of boxes and 
barrels is now lighted, and after it has burned for some 
time, the manner of turning the wheel and breaking the 
bottle is shown, the hose being first unreeled and the stop- 
cock opened. 

The demonstrator, while the stream lasts, must call 
attention to and illustrate how far the stream can be thrown, 
as well as how close to a fire a fireman may get by revers- 
ing his fire-hat ; he can also show that the stream may be 
cut off, by turning the stop-cock, while the fire is being ex- 
posed by another fireman with a pole or ax. The fire being 
extinguished, and the fluid exhausted, the party should re- 
turn to the hose-house, the extinguisher being carried as in 
No. i. The extinguisher should now be cleaned out and re- 
charged as explained above, and the drill is ended. 

CHEMICAL DRILL NO. III. 

Run ioo yards, shoulder extinguishers, carry into building. "Take up" 
This drill may be practiced at the same time that the 
Ladder Company is having Ladder Drill No. II. Before 
starting on the ioo-yards' run, the members of the Chemical 
Company should take their positions on either side of the 
truck, as near the extinguishers as possible, where they can 
assist in getting the truck along by pushing. When about 
50 feet from the termination of the run, the straps securing 
the extinguishers in place should be unfastened. By the 



CHEMICAL DRILL NO. IV. 99 

time this is done the truck will be at a standstill, and the 
four extinguishers are shouldered as in Drill No. I. The 
captain, securing a lantern, leads the way into the building, 
to any portion, from basement to attic, as the Chief at the 
time may order. At each practice a different building 
should be visited. As it is no boy's play to carry a chem- 
ical extinguisher very far, especially up two or three flights 
of stairs, after running several hundred feet, haste should be 
made slowly. It is better to walk up stairs than it is to 
run. Arriving at the place designated, the extinguishers are 
set down, and the hose uncoiled. At the order "take up," 
the hose is re-coiled, the extinguishers shouldered, the com- 
pany returns to the truck, and the extinguishers are secured 

» 

in their proper places. Returning to the hose-house, the 
extinguishers are carefully examined by the Captain, to ascer- 
tain whether or not any of the acid-bottles have been broken 
during the drill. 

CHEMICAL DRILL NO. IV. 

Run 100 yards, shoulder extinguishers, carry into building, extinguish 
'- ' smudge " fire. " Take up." 

The material for a "smudge" fire should be gotten together, 
and preparations made for lighting it before the time set for 
the drill. The material may be of any substance that will 
burn slowly, with little blaze, but considerable smoke. A 
mixture of dampened straw, woolen and cotton rags, with 
enough dry material to give it a start, answers the purpose 
very well. A greater or less quantity of this, according to the 
size of the room and the amount of smoke required, should be 
placed, not too loosely, in an iron or tin receptacle, the whole 
being placed in a fire-proof basement room, or other suitable 
place, where there could be no possible danger of the fire 
being communicated to any structure. All windows, doors 
and flues should be closed. 



ioo DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

The company having arrived for drill, together with the 
Ladder Company, a position ioo yards from the building is 
taken. The Chief should start the fire, remaining in the room 
until he finds more comfortable breathing near the floor. 
Then leaving the building, closing the door behind him, he 
gives the signal, and the companies make the ioo-yards' run. 
The Chemical Company, upon arriving, are ordered into the 
room where the fire is. The Captain leads the way, the men 
having shouldered the extinguishers. The fire having been 
found to be confined to the basement, no ladders are needed, 
and the laddermen enter the basement, as ordered, with 
lanterns, axes, poles, etc. [See Ladder Drill No. III.] After 
entering the room, if it is not known where the fire is located, 
and on account of the thick smoke this is very likely to be 
the case, the men with chemicals put them down at some 
convenient point, crouch near the floor, in order to breathe a 
purer air and to regain breath, while the Captain, who has a 
lantern, seeks for the fire. Having found it, he orders : " This 
way, Chemical Company." The extinguishers are picked up 
(if the distance is short they need not be shouldered), and 
carried to a point a short distance from the fire. The extin- 
guishers need never be carried closer to a fire than the length 
of the hose attached to them. With such a small blaze the 
Captain will find that one chemical only will be required, and 
he will direct one of the men to " play away." The hose 
having been uncoiled and the stop-cock opened, the wheel on 
top of the extinguisher is turned to the right until the bottle 
is broken. The last turn sometimes requires considerable 
force before the bottle will break. While turning the wheel 
the nozzle of the hose must be pointed toward the fire, and 
after the stream is on, the fireman managing it must get as 
close to the fire as he can, lying flat upon the floor if neces- 
sary. The stream should be applied as directly upon the 
burning objects as possible, the stop-cock being used to "shut 



GENERAL DRILLS. 101 

down" whenever it is necessary that the smouldering sub- 
stance be turned over. The other Chemical men should 
remain by their extinguishers until ordered away, so as to be 
ready to " play away" at any moment. The fire having been 
extinguished, and everything set to rights, the Chief orders 
the companies to "take up," and finally to "go home." At 
the hose-house the empty extinguisher is re-charged, and the 
others inspected. 

This drill should be made frequently, as it accustoms the 
firemen to working in a thick, smoky atmosphere. 

GENERAL DRILLS. 

The drills following, or modifications of them, should be 
taken up as soon as the different companies are fairly familiar 
with the special drills already described. They should be 
repeated as often as possible, a general drill once in four 
weeks not being any too often. It will very readily be seen 
that without some form of drill whereby the Brigade as a 
whole might learn to work together harmoniously, as they 
would be obliged to do at a fire, officers and men would, in the 
excitement of a fire, become confused, and valuable time would 
be lost. It is also important that the Marshals have occasional 
opportunities for studying the manner of directing an attack 
against fire, as well as to discover and correct mistakes 
made by individuals and companies. No matter how fault- 
lessly separate drills are done by the different companies, 
mistakes will happen at a general drill, and the less practice 
the Brigade has the more serious will be the mistakes made at 
a fire or at a general practice. A general drill will serve also 
as a test, not alone of the efficiency of the Brigade, but of the 
working condition of all the machinery, pumps, water-mains, 
hydrants, electric alarm, and fire-extinguishing apparatus in 
general. The drills should be conducted in the same manner 
as though the Brigade had a bona fide fire to deal with. 



ID2 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

It is important, while the organization is still young, to have 
general drills with previous notification before having drills with- 
out such notice. After a few such drills the Brigade will be 
prepared to respond to an alarm for a general drill, without 
previous notification, or for a fire, with little or no confusion or 
excitement. 

It is not thought necessary to go into the details of the 
general drills, as this has been gone over sufficiently at length 
in describing the special drills. 

GENERAL DRILL NO. I. 

Alarm, with notification ; day ; test of water pressure, etc. 

Some time before the alarm is sounded for this drill, a 
general notification should be given, and just before the alarm 
is to be sounded firemen should put on their "bunkers." Time 
should be kept from the moment of the alarm until water is 
thrown. 

At the sounding of the alarm the Chief and First Assistant 
proceed to the location selected, while the Second Assist- 
ant and the members of the different companies go to the 
hose-house. Here the companies take their proper positions, 
the Captain or Lieutenants of hose companies securing carts 

and calling, "This way, No. , " giving the number of the 

company of which he is an officer. The Assistant Marshal calls 
out plainly the location, and the companies as fast as they are 
formed leave the house. As already pointed out, it will often 
be necessary to mix companies to some extent, on a general 
turnout. In order to do this to the best advantage, and with 
the least amount of confusion, the Marshal at the hose-house 
must act quickly and with good judgment. No rule can be 
laid down as to how this should be done. After practicing this 
general drill a few times, the manner in which companies are 
best formed will become apparent. 

After starting the majority of the companies, the Assist- 



GENERAL DRILL NO. I. 103 

ant Marshal should run ahead to assist as much as possible in 
placing the different companies, taking his orders from the 
Chief or First Assistant. 

Each company, upon arrival, must be put to doing some- 
thing at once, and be kept busy until the drill is over. The first 
hose company ready should be ordered to " play away." The 
disposition of the various companies must at each practice of 
this drill be determined by the Chief. He should have a 
definite plan of action based upon an imaginary fire. Combina- 
tions and modifications of the various special drills can be 
worked out; points not mentioned in any of the special drills 
may be practiced, as for instance : the company throwing water 
is supposed to have burst a length of hose; the order is given 
to " shut down," and the burst length removed and either 
another length supplied, or the separated lengths brought 
together and connected. At the same time this is being done 
another hose company is called to the place occupied by the 
other, and ordered to " play away." Another useful maneuver 
would be the pulling up to a high window or roof of a lead of 
hose by the use of the rope carried on the ladder truck for this 
purpose. Companies should be changed about during the drill, 
that they may become acquainted with the various orders. 
When the drill is finished the order to " take up " must be 
given by the Chief to the Captains of the companies separately, 
no company to " take up " until so ordered by the Chief. 
The Captains should give the orders respecting the details. 
After " taking up," the companies should remain on hand until 
ordered by the Chief to " go home." Arriving at the hose- 
house, and the apparatus having been looked over carefully, the 
companies are all dismissed with the exception of the compa- 
nies having used water. They should remain to change the 
wet hose upon the cart for dry. 



ih 



104 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

GENERAL DRILL NO. II. 

Alarm without notification ; day; imaginary fire in attic, basement or 
other place. 

The location of the imaginary fire having been decided 
upon, an alarm, without previous notification, is turned in. The 
drill is to be conducted as though there really was a fire, except 
that no water is to be used in-doors. Where fire pressure is 
used, an outside stream, thrown on the roof, for instance, should 
be ordered. If it is not desirable to use water, word can be 
sent to the Engineer to take off the extra pressure. Each time 
this drill is given a new location should be selected. In this 
way the officers may make a practical study of the manner in 
which a fire in different parts of the various buildings may be 
fought. After the Brigade is quite familiar with the special 
drills, this general drill should be frequently repeated. 

GENERAL DRILL NO. III. 

A larm, without notification ; day ; '• S7nudge " fire in baseme7it. 

A " smudge " fire should be made in a basement, as for 
Chemical Drill No. IV. The alarm is then turned in, without 
previous notification. Upon the arrival of the Brigade the 
Chemical and Ladder Companies are ordered into the base- 
ment, as at special drills. One hose company should be 
ordered into the basement, another into the building just over 
the fire, and another to take position at one of the basement 
windows. 

GENERAL DRILL NO. IV. 

Alarm, without notificatio?i ; night ; false alarm. 

This drill needs no further explanation than this : that 
the alarm should be turned in just after all have retired, say 
between ten o'clock and midnight, or it may be better to do so 
just before the rising hour. This drill should be given once in 
six months, unless there has been a night alarm other than 



EXHIBITION DRILLS AND CONTESTS. 105 

the drill during that time. Firemen should not forget their 
" bunkers." 

EXHIBITION DRILLS AND CONTESTS. 

Exhibition drills must necessarily differ in some respects 
from the ordinary fire practice, for the reason that much of 
the work done by the Brigade in a regular drill would be not 
only out of sight of the spectators, but if seen would not be 
fully appreciated. Something more showy is necessary, and 
while not as useful to the firemen as would be a regular drill, 
the exhibition encourages them to put forth their best efforts. 
A few hints as to these exhibition drills will suffice. 

The plans for the exhibition should be thoroughly made, 
and they should be so well understood by the Marshals as to 
preclude the possibility of failure. If it is simply the desire to 
show how quickly the Brigade can respond to an alarm with- 
out previous notification, no planning will be necessary, except 
to provide for a full turnout, something that could not be done 
in case of fire, except at night. It is not essential in any case 
that the whole Brigade be previously notified, but it is often 
desirable. It is necessary, however, in order that a creditable 
exhibition may be given, that certain preparations be made in 
advance, such as : an understanding between the Marshals as 
to the form of drill ; time and place ; the placing of spectators, 
etc. Have all the work done, as far as it is possible, in sight 
of the spectators. In building a pile for a fire for the Chemical 
Company to extinguish, do not make it so large that it will 
require more than two extinguishers to put it out, nor yet so 
small that it will be quenched in a moment. In making such 
a pile use dry, quickly-burning material, loosely put together. 
An exhibition drill could be made up of some of the regular 
drills and contests. Some such arrangement as the following 
may be taken as an illustration : 



106 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

EXHIBITION DRILLS. 

A favorable spot having been chosen, a pile for a bonfire 
thrown up, and the spectators settled, the alarm is sounded.* 
As the Brigade arrives the hose companies are directed to the 
proper hydrants by the Assistant Marshals, and all the hose is 
laid and pipes attached, the leads converging to a point indi- 
cated by the Chief. The first company ready is ordered to 
" play away," and then the second. The others must keep 
their hose dry. The order to " play away " can be given, in this 
instance, just before the pipe is attached. The Ladder Com- 
pany, upon arrival, is ordered to place its ladders against some 
adjoining building, the Chemical Company removing their 
extinguishers to a short distance. The order " shut down " is 
soon given to the two hose companies using water, followed 
by the order, " take up," to all the companies. The Brigade 
should then pass in review before the spectators, after which 
may be introduced, in the order named : Trial of Speed by 
Ladder Company; Hose Contest No. II. by the two com- 
panies having the best records ; Hose Drill No. V. by the 
remaining two companies ; lighting of bonfire, with work by 
Chemical Company. 

The following Hose Company contests and Ladder Com- 
pany trials of speed will aid materially in keeping up inter- 
est in the work of drilling, which might become irksome with- 
out some such incentive. 

HOSE CONTEST NO. I. 

Run ioo yards to hydrant, and connect ; lay 250 feet of hose ; attach pipe. 

The cart and hydrant having been thoroughly inspected by 
the Chief, the company takes its position 100 yards from the 

* With such preparations it would be impossible to keep the boys 
from getting an idea of what was going to happen next, so that to see them 
rushing towards the hose-house almost before the alarm sounds must be 
expected. 



HOSE CONTESTS NOS. II. AND III. 107 

hydrant. The hydrant-cap must be on by three turns, and the 
connections at pipe and hydrant must be made by not less than 
three turns. The reel may be freed from fastenings. The 
start is made by a signal from the starter, and the finish 
announced by the chief calling " Time." "Time" is not to be 
called until the pipeman has made his coupling and dropped 
the pipe to the ground, and the hydrant-man has made the 
hydrant connection, fitted the wrench to the rod, and stepped 
away. The connections must be examined and found to be 
correct before the time made is recorded. [See Hose Drill 
No. I.] 

HOSE CONTEST NO. II. 

Run 100 yards to hydrant, connect, lay 230 feet of hose, attach pipe ; "play 
away,' ' water at fire pressure. 

This contest is the same in every particular as No. L, ex- 
cept that water is used. "Time" is called when water comes 
from the pipe (which is held by the pipeman) and the hydrant 
gate is wide open. The order to "play away" may be given, in 
this instance, as the cart passes the hydrant, for generally by 
the time the hydrant-man is ready to turn on water it will be 
safe for him to do so. He should, however, turn slowly or 
rapidly, according to how nearly ready the pipeman is. In 
order that no time be lost in waiting for water after every- 
thing else is ready, the hydrant-man should endeavor to have 
water burst from the nozzle just as the pipe is in position. 
With a little practice and well-understood signals between the 
Captain and hydrant-man, this contest drill can be accom- 
plished almost as quickly as No. I. 

HOSE CONTEST NO. III. 

Run 100 yards to hydrant ; co7inect ; lay 230 feet of hose; attach pipe ; break 
couplings ; make couplings. 

[See Hose Drill No. II.] Reel may be free from fasten- 
ings. All connections must be made by at least three turns. 



108 DRILLING OF THE BRIGADE. 

The hydrant-man must make the first connection at hydrant, 
and the pipeman at pipe as in Contest No. I. Two of the com- 
pany then break and make all connections as in Hose Drill No. 
II. "Time" is called when the pipe is turned into place the 
second time, and is dropped to the ground. 

LADDER COMPANY TRIAL OF SPEED NO. I. 

Run ioo yards, raise three ladders, climber to top of each. 

This is very similar to Ladder Drill No. II., except that no 
axes or poles are to be used. A certain place for footing each 
ladder should be previously decided upon. In each case the 
man who foots the ladder should mount to the top. When the 
last one to touch the top round of his ladder has done so, 
"time" should be called. By careful practice this trial of 
speed may be done very smoothly, and in remarkably quick 
time. The three ladders can be taken from the truck almost 
simultaneously, so that the three climbers will reach the top of 
their respective ladders at about the same time. This and the 
trial following would be very effective in exhibition work. 

LADDER COMPANY TRIAL OF SPEED NO. II. 

Run ioo yards, raise 22-foot ladder to perpendicular, climber to top. 

The four best ladder raisers and the best climber should 
be selected, and so placed at the sides of the truck that they 
can drop back without trouble. A line should be marked 
across the road or lawn 100 yards from the starting point, 
across which line the truck will pass without slackening speed. 
When within about 75 feet of the line, the selected men should 
fall behind and remove the 22-foot ladder from the truck. The 
climber stops at a point 20 feet back of the line. The 
foot of the ladder is placed on the line indicated, and the lad- 
der is raised almost to a perpendicular. The climber runs from 
his position, jumps over the stooping truckman footing the lad- 
der, and climbs to the top, the four men steadying the ladder as 
he climbs. After some practice this can be done very quickly. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE FIGHTING OF FIRE. 

IN the fighting of fire, while general principles are applica- 
ble to most cases, no special mode of treatment or action 
can be laid down for any single instance. As each fire differs 
in many particulars from all other fires, so the treatment will 
differ in each case. The indications must be met as they 
arise. The particular treatment necessary in any case must be 
decided upon at the time of its existence; it can not be done 
before. The plan of action adopted at each fire will depend 
upon many things — the time of day, the condition of the 
atmosphere; the direction and velocity of the wind; the con- 
struction and uses of the building; the location of the fire; its 
extent; manner and rapidity of its progress, etc., as well as 
upon the kind and reliability of apparatus and the efficiency of 
the Brigade and the judgment of its officers. 

OBEDIENCE TO ORDERS. 

One of the most essential things for firemen to learn is 
the necessity, at a fire, for the rapid execution of the plans of 
the officers in charge. That this may be done, each order, 
when given by the proper officer, no matter how unnecessary it 
may seem to be to the one receiving it, must be promptly obeyed. 
A single moment's delay might be the means of causing 
irremediable damage. There should be no questioning, no 
stopping for explanations once an order is given by the 
proper person. This is as necessary for the protection of the 
firemen themselves as it is for the protection of property and 



no THE FIGHTING OF FIRE. 

of the lives of others. A company may hesitate just long 
enough, after receiving the order to " back out," for instance, 
to have all avenues of escape cut off, or to get caught under a 
falling wall. 

Suggestions and orders from outsiders, those who are 
simply lookers-on, are frequently given at a fire. Firemen 
should never pay any attention to such, for the danger of so 
doing would be as great, almost, as the disobeying of orders 
from the proper source. 

COOLNESS AND PRESENCE OF MIND. 

At a fire, officers and men should endeavor to work with 
as little excitement as they would in going through an ordinary 
drill. A single excited individual, it matters not what his 
position may be, is liable to interfere seriously with the work 
of the rest of the Brigade. Cool-headedness should be espe- 
cially cultivated by the officers ; they should strive to be self- 
possessed under the most trying circumstances, and equal to 
any emergency. A cool, clear head is requisite for the solu- 
tion of unexpected difficulties, which are constantly arising. 
The members of the different companies will generally emu- 
late the example of the company officers, and these in turn 
that of their superior officers. There should be an absence of 
all unnecessary noise and running about. If the Brigade is 
well drilled, but few orders will be required, and there need be 
little if any loud talking except in the giving of orders. Fire- 
men should do what they are told to do, calmly and deliber- 
ately, relying upon the judgment of their officers. 

GIVING THE ALARM. 

There should be the least possible loss of time between 
the discovery of fire and the turning in of the alarm, as each 
moment of time is of the greatest importance to firemen. 
Each second's delay adds to the difficulty of extinguishing 



RESPONDING TO ALARM. in 

fire. Not only should employes be instructed as to the mariner 
in which an alarm is to be given, but the fact should be 
thoroughly impressed upon their minds that there must never 
be any delay, after a fire is discovered, in giving the alarm. 
If the fire be very small, and could of a surety be easily extin- 
guished with the means at hand, then it would not be neces- 
sary to call out the Brigade ; but it would in any case be better 
to call out the firemen needlessly than to wait until the fire 
has made headway before giving the alarm. 

RESPONDING TO ALARM. 

Immediately upon an alarm of fire each member of the 
Brigade must act, and act promptly. To go to the hose- 
house, and from there to the fire with the apparatus as 
quickly and as orderly as possible must be his first thought. 
There should be, however, no wasting of strength or breath 
by rapid running. If this is done the firemen arrive at the 
fire panting for breath, and totally unfit to enter a hot or 
smoky atmosphere. If firemen will always think to have 
their "bunkers" ready by their beds, there is no reason why 
even better time could not be made at night than during 
the day. 

AT THE HOSE-HOUSE. 

If the hose-house be centrally located, there need be but 
little delay in the starting of apparatus. The ladder truck 
should be gotten out as soon as there are enough members 
of the Ladder and Chemical companies to start it. The 
rest of the members of the two companies could join in 
afterwards, the bell on the truck acting as a guide, espec- 
ially at night. The first Hose-Company Captain or Lieu- 
tenant to arrive should secure a cart nearest the door and 
call out, "This way, No. — " naming the number of his 
company. A hose-cart could be started out if provided with 



ii2 THE FIGHTING OF FIRE. 

a captain or lieutenant, a lineman, and a hydrant-man. It 
will not always be possible, nor will it be necessary, for 
hose companies to leave the house without more or less 
mixing. As will be seen by reference to the chapter on 
"Organization," it should be the duty of one of the Assist- 
ant Marshals to go to the hose-house upon an alarm, there 
to assist in forming the companies and getting them started, 
giving the location, and directing the later arrivals what to 
do. After practicing some of the general drills a few times 
the question of what is best to be done at the hose-house 
will become easy of settlement, if properly studied by the 
officers. 

SMOKE AND HEAT, 

One of the greatest obstacles a fireman has to contend 
with at a fire, especially in its early stage, is the presence 
of smoke. It often prevents a near approach to an other- 
wise easily accessible fire, and in consequence much valuable 
time is lost. The quantity of smoke coming from an open 
door or window, however, is not always an indication of the 
amount to be found within, for it is often the case that fire- 
men may breathe comfortably in rooms from which are 
pouring, by window or doorway, great volumes of smoke. 
By stooping low it will generally be found that an entrance 
to the building or room may be safely made. The condi- 
tion of the atmosphere of the interior may then be observed. 
This fact should be impressed upon the mind of every fire- 
man — that heat and smoke, by their lightness, tend to rise; 
that therefore the intensity of heat and the density of smoke 
increase rapidly as the ceiling is approached, and conversely, 
the heat becomes less oppressive and the air much freer from 
smoke as the floor is neared. By crawling upon the hands 
and knees, or by lying flat upon the floor, firemen will find 
they can get about, or remain in a very smoky room for a 



SMOKE AND HEAT. 113 

considerable length of time, where the upright position could 
not be maintained for more than a moment or so. 

If the amount of smoke and heat in any way interferes 
with the firemen's efforts in finding or extinguishing the fire, 
there should be no delay in providing for the rapid escape of 
both heat and smoke. Windows should be lowered from the top ; 
if this cannot be done, then at least one should be broken at 
the top, the others being raised from the bottom. Of course if 
raising the windows will accomplish the object, then there is no 
necessity for breaking one, but one window open at the top will 
allow of the escape of more heat and smoke than six raised from 
the bottom. It becomes necessary at times, on account of the 
great amount of smoke and heat, for an opening to be made in 
the roof, through which the smoke and heat may escape. The 
objection will be raised to these suggestions that the opening of 
windows and doors, and cutting holes in the roof, will create a 
draft, and thus favor the rapid spread of fire. This is partly 
true; if the fire is so situated (in an unoccupied building, 
in a closet or single apartment, for example) that the escape of 
the inmates will not be prevented by the smoke, then windows 
and doors should be kept closed until the firemen are ready to 
attack the fire. But for firemen to enter a building or apart- 
ment already filled with thick, blinding smoke and a furnace- 
like atmosphere, and then to refrain from opening windows and 
doors, for fear of creating a draft, would be utter folly. The 
firemen would be fighting in the dark, guessing at the location 
of the fire, wasting time, and endangering their lives needlessly. 

When ample provision is not made for the escape of heat 
and smoke, it often happens that there is a sudden reversal of 
air currents, the scorching air above changing places with the 
cooler atmosphere nearer the floor. This might prove very 
serious to anyone so unfortunate as to be in the room at the 
time. Again, smoke itself, when dense and sufficiently heated, 
is highly combustible. 



ii4 THE FIGHTING OF FIRE. 

A wet handkerchief, or cloth of any kind, held over the 
mouth and nose, makes an excellent respirator. For hosemen, 
the use of the spray nozzle attachment to the play pipe is a 
great protection against excessive heat and smoke. 

Reversing the fire-hat, so that the long peak comes in front, 
will give additional protection against heat. 

RETREAT. 

The officers of the Brigade should have in mind, during 
the progress of a fire, the many dangers by which firemen are 
surrounded. Each possible source of danger should be care- 
fully studied, and in each instance the officer should have in 
mind the way in which retreat could be safely made in case of 
necessity. The Chief should keep a sharp look-out for totter- 
ing walls, sinking floors, and weakening roofs. He should not 
wait until the last moment before giving the order to " back 
out" or " back down," when he apprehends danger. 

INCIPIENT FIRES. 

Fires involving the loss of life and the destruction of much 
property are frequently the result of either the neglect or 
improper management of incipient fires. In places provided 
with the proper facilities for fighting fire, a well-drilled Brig- 
ade, and with a method, almost instantaneous in its action, of 
notifying the firemen of the presence and whereabouts of a fire, 
there is no reason why so many incipient fires should be 
allowed to become destructive conflagrations. The proper 
management of these fires by the Brigade will depend greatly 
upon the good judgment used in each case by the officers in 
charge as well as upon the amount of attention the drilling of 
the Brigade has received. 

The few observations following may be of service to the 
Brigade in the treatment of fire in its early stages: 

— Pending the arrival of the Brigade in case of the smaller 



INCIPIENT FIRES. 115 

fires, efforts should be made by those in the vicinity of the fire 
either to extinguish it, or else endeavor to hold it in check with 
the means at hand. The safety of the inmates is to be first 
considered, however. 



— If a fire in a closet, wardrobe, or other small apartment 
cannot be reached with water from pails, the doors and win- 
dows of said apartment should be tightly closed until after the 
arrival of the Brigade. 



— In using water from fire-pails, it should be judiciously 
applied, not thrown haphazard. If possible, it should be 
thrown on to the bed of the fire rapidly and continuously, but in 
comparatively small quantities at a time. The use of a cup or 
dipper, or better still, of a small hand force-pump, if one is 
provided with the pails, for distributing the water where it will 
do most good, would be a much better plan than to throw the 
whole pailful at once. Especially if the fire be situated out of 
easy reach will it be folly to try to extinguish it by attempting 
to empty the pail at once. 



— A woman should never attempt to extinguish a fire by tramp- 
ling upon it, no matter how small it may be. A spark, flying 
upward, is very liable to lodge in some portion of her wearing 
apparel, soon to light up a fire that may cost her her life. 



— Rugs, carpets, and blankets are generally convenient, and 
if spread over small fires occurring on tables, beds, or upon the 
floor (such as burning table-spreads, bed clothes, piles of wear- 
ing apparel, etc.), will often extinguish the fire, or at least hold 
it in check or prevent its spread, by depriving it of air. The 
efficiency of this method will be greatly increased by throwing 
water upon whatever is used for smothering the fire. 



u6 THE FIGHTING OF FIRE. 

— No matter how small the fire, nor how quickly it has 
been extinguished, the Chief should not feel free to send the 
firemen away until he has proved beyond a doubt that no 
smouldering ember has been overlooked. Burned or charred 
lathing, flooring, etc., must be wholly removed, or partially 
removed, so that a thorough inspection may be made of that 
which would otherwise be hidden from view. After fires in 
clothes-closets, store-rooms, bedding, and the like, the par- 
tially burned or charred material should be spread out and 
carefully examined for sparks or smouldering fragments. 



— In combating fires in walls, floors or ceilings, the atten- 
tion of the firemen should not be alone directed to its point 
of origin, for while they are congratulating themselves upon 
an easy victory, the fire may be making rapid progress upward, 
between the studding, to attic or roof. Each concealed space 
in wall or floor, unless provided with fire-stops, becomes a flue, 
through which fire will travel with remarkable rapidity. Bear- 
ing this in mind, firemen must not rest content until they are 
sure they have extinguished all of the fire. The upper 
opening of the flue should be watched during the progress 
of the incipient fire below, an extinguisher or lead of hose 
being near at hand and ready for instant use. 



— It is sometimes necessary to tear down plastering, lath- 
ing, base-boards, partitions, door and window-casings, etc., 
and to tear up flooring, that the hidden portion of a fire may 
be reached and extinguished. Like all necessary things, this 
is as often overdone as it is underdone. The former is to be 
preferred to the latter. A well-disciplined, well-drilled and 
well-officered brigade will refrain from either extreme, but will 
do as nearly just what is essential as the circumstances will 
allow, — no more, no less. 



INCIPIENT FIRES. 117 

— If a fire is known to exist, and yet is concealed from 
view, it must be diligently searched for, and when located, 
thoroughly exposed, so that it may be acted upon to the best 
advantage by pail, extinguisher or hose. If the officers of the 
Brigade know, by previous observation and study, the pecu- 
liarities of construction of the various buildings, and have paid 
attention to some of the causes of fires, they will have but 
little trouble in discovering the location of concealed fires, 
and in properly exposing the same. 



— The danger from smoke and the rapid spread of fire is 
much greater from those fires having their origin in the base- 
ment or lower stories, than from those originating in the roof, 
attic or upper stories. 



SMOULDERING FIRES. 

In the spontaneous ignition of oiled rags, and in the slow 
combustion of woodwork, etc., not exposed to the air, it 
frequently happens that the material will smoulder and smoke 
for many hours, sometimes for several days, before bursting 
into active flame, owing to the absence of a sufficient amount 
of air to produce active combustion. The presence of smoke 
or the odor of anything burning in a building should never be 
neglected, and a most thorough search begun at once and not 
given up until the cause for the same has been found. In very 
mild, uncertain cases the notifying of the Chief or other officer 
would be sufficient, but if the odor be distinct, and the cause 
be not immediately apparent, then there should be no hesi- 
tancy whatever in turning in an alarm. Especially should 
there be no delay at night. Every nook and corner in every 
part of the building, from cellar to attic, should be thoroughly 
searched. These fires may be caused by oiled rags in closets, 



u8 THE FIGHTING OF FIRE. 

chutes, between floors ; by heat-conductors in too close prox- 
imity to wood-work ; defective furnaces ; dirt in registers, etc. 

FIRES IN COAL PILES. 

In endeavoring to extinguish fires occurring in the interior 
of piles of bituminous coal, it is useless to throw water upon 
the outer surface. The small amount that finds its way through 
the coal to the fire, instead of extinguishing, adds to the fire. 
Water must be made to reach the burning coals in as direct a 
manner and in as large quantities as possible. The use of 
three-inch iron pipes, driven down into the burning mass, 
through which water may be forced from the hose, has been 
found to be the most successful means employed. In the ab- 
sence of iron pipes, the digging of one or more holes down to 
the burning coal, into which streams of water are turned, will 
generally bring about the desired result. 

SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS, 



HOSE COMPANIES. 

Do not fight fire by attacking flame and smoke. 

It is quite useless and a great waste of time to direct a 
stream of water against flame or into smoke. The presence of 
a great amount of suffocating smoke does not necessarily indi- 
cate that the fire is an extensive one. A small piece of smould- 
ering wood, or a few handsful of burning straw or woolen rags 
are often sufficient to fill a house so full of smoke as to make 
it very uncomfortable for people to remain in it. Nor does 
the amount of smoke alone show the firemen the exact loca- 
tion of the fire, so that rUwould be useless for him to direct his 
stream at smoke, no matter how dense it might be. A stream 
of water should not be thrown into a shaft or chute of any kind 
simply for the reason that smoke is issuing from it. 

Throwing a stream of water into the flatnes with the object 



SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS. 119 

in view of extinguishing the fire, is nearly if not quite as unsat- 
isfactory as trying to put out the fire by wetting down the 
smoke. It is a temptation to a fireman, whenever a blaze of fire 
shows itself, to "hit it," but while his stream of water is either 
being converted into steam, or is passing through the flame to 
fall in a place where it is not needed or will do actual harm, the 
fire itself, at its base, is making steady progress. In this way 
many a small, incipient fire is allowed to become a serious one. 



Water, to be effective, must be applied directly to the burning coals. 

This fact must certainly be evident to all, yet it is not in- 
frequently disregarded by firemen in their efforts to extin- 
guish a fire. Pains should be taken to discover and expose, as 
much as possible, the burning objects, — the bed of the fire, — and 
the stream of water thrown directly, and from the nearest 
practicable point, agaifist the burni?ig coals. The more solid the 
stream is when it reaches the burning mass the more effective 
will it be. A very feeble stream of water, reaching a fierce 
fire in the form of spray, really adds to its fury by supplying 
fuel, for water, under certain conditions, is combustible. It is 
not always possible to expose the bed of the fire, nor to apply 
the stream directly to it. In this case the stream must be 
directed against the surrounding wood-work. In approaching 
a good-sized fire for the purpose of throwing water upon the 
burning coals, it should be done from the rear of the fire, if 
convenient ; that is, where there is the least heat and smoke. 
A much nearer position can be thus taken by the firemen, and 
the efficiency of the stream is not in danger of being lessened 
by passing through flame before reaching the coals. 



Keep the adjoining structures wet, that spreading of the fire may be hindered 
or prevented. 
Next in importance to fighting fire where it exists is the 



120 THE FIGHTING OF FIRE. 

prevention of its spread, especially when it is gaining headway. 
This is done, in a measure, by thoroughly wetting and keep- 
ing wet those structures immediately surrounding the burning 
objects, as well as those which are in danger of being reached 
by the flames or by flying embers. With a wind blowing, and 
the fire spreading, it is quite as essential to have a stream of 
water anticipating the advance of the flames as it is to fight 
the body of the fire. The fire can be best headed off by hav- 
ing the stream of water thrown from a position at one side or 
in front of the spreading flames, so that in reaching the ex- 
posed structures the water would not first pass through fire. 



The order to "play away " should not be given until the pipeman is i?i posi- 
tion to play 071 the fire. 

For the following reasons : I. — Empty hose is much easier 
to handle, and therefore can be gotten into position more 
quickly than hose filled with water. 2. — A heavy force of 
water coming to the play-pipe unexpectedly, may find the 
pipeman from his position on ladder, stairs, roof or window-sill, 
totally unprepared for the shock, and cause him, and probably 
others, to fall. 3. — The stream is liable to strike almost any- 
where except where it is needed, and possibly cause much 
damage and create needless confusion. 4. — Time is lost, not 
saved, the fire, in the meantime, rapidly gaining headway. 

CHEMICAL COMPANY. 

Do not unreel hose until the proper position is reached for playing upon 
the fire. 

If this precaution be not observed the hose is liable to 
become torn or otherwise injured by dragging upon the ground 
or floor. It is also liable to trip up the carrier of the extin- 
guisher. 



SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS. 121 

Do not charge the Chemical until ready to play upon the fire. 

In other words, do not waste the fluid by throwing it where 
it will do no good. 



Get as close to the fire as possible, a?id direct the stream upon the burning 
coals. 

The shorter the range, the more effective will be the 
stream. 



An extinguisher should never be strapped to the back, or in any way fastened 
to any portion of the body. 

It is just as easy to carry the extinguisher balanced upon 
the shoulder, and not nearly as dangerous. 

LIFE-SAVING CORPS. 

Upon an alarm of fire the members of the Life-Saving 
Corps must proceed directly to the location given. Their 
special duties will vary greatly, from simply reassuring pa- 
tients and preventing and subduing excitement, to removing 
large numbers of patients from a burning building to a place 
of safety, and rescuing and caring for those who are sick, 
insensible or otherwise helpless. 

Each room should be carefully searched for patients — in 
closets and corners ; behind doors ; in beds and under them. 
When it is certain that the room contains no one, the door 
should be closed and locked (unless there be good reasons 
why this should not be done), to prevent the return of 
patients into it. 

After patients are removed from the building they 
should be kept together and taken as soon as possible to a 
safe place. 

Patients should be prevented from returning to the burn- 
ing building by placing at each exit-door a member of the 
Corps or one of the ward attendants. 



122 THE FIGHTING OF FIRE. 

In rescuing an insensible or otherwise helpless person, 
who is too heavy to be easily carried, it could in most 
instances be easily done by dragging the bed, upon which the 
patient is lying, along the floor. If stairs are to be descended, 
a bed with quite a heavy person upon it may be guided in its 
slide by two persons, — one at either end. 

A person whose clothing is on fire should be prevented 
from running about, and if possible made to lie down. In 
approaching such a person, the rescuer must hold in front of 
himself a rug, blanket, coat, or whatever he has been able to 
secure for the purpose. This he should wrap about the other, 
the intention being to smother the fire by excluding air. If 
the wearer of the burning garments is standing, he must be 
made to lie down, and then rolled snugly into the article used 
for smothering the fire. 






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